Qualitative research

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• Design

  Maxwell JA. Designing a qualitative study. In: Bickman L, Rog DJ, editors. Handbook of applied social research methods Sage; 1998. p. 69–100.

  • This book chapter walks you through some practical steps needed to help you design the key aspects of your qualitative study.

• Data collection

  Gill P, Stewart K, Treasure E, Chadwick B. Methods of data collection in qualitative research: interviews and focus groups. British Dental Journal. 2008;204(6):291-5.

  • This paper provides an overview of how to choose between and use the two most-widely used methods for qualitative data collection – interviews and focus groups.
    

• Rigour in qualitative research

  Korstjens I, Moser A. Series: Practical guidance to qualitative research. Part 4: Trustworthiness and publishing. European Journal of General Practice. 2018;24(1):120-4.

  • This paper provides strategies for meeting key criteria for rigor in qualitative research, which are markedly different from those for quantitative research.

• Sample size

  Sim J, Saunders B, Waterfield J, Kingstone T. Can sample size in qualitative research be determined a priori? International Journal of Social Research Methodology. 2018;21(5):619-34.

  • This paper summarises challenges to providing an a priori sample size estimates for qualitative research that can be cited when giving reasons for uncertainty in grant or ethics applications.

  Malterud K, Siersma VD, Guassora AD. Sample size in qualitative interview studies: guided by information power. Qualitative health research. 2016;26(13):1753-60.

  • This paper provides a practical way to estimate and justify sample size that uses the term ‘information power’ as an alternative to ‘saturation’ (a term closely associated with a particular kind of qualitative research called grounded theory).
    

• Qualitative analysis

  Thematic analysis

  Braun V, Clarke V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative research in psychology. 2006;3(2):77-101. 

  • This is among the most widely-cited articles on qualitative analysis. It provides a step-by-step approach and a clear summation of key issues such as whether to take a more inductive versus deductive approach. The same approach is presented by the authors in a 1-hour university lecture [opens external site].

  Braun, V, Clarke, V. Can I use TA? Should I use TA? Should I not use TA? Comparing reflexive thematic analysis and other pattern-based qualitative analytic approaches. Couns Psychother Res. 2021; 21: 37–47. 

  • Braun and Clarke wrote the above and other more recent articles after becoming concerned about an over-use of the term thematic analysis in contexts where it’s not a good fit.

  Braun and Clarke also have a website which includes resources and examples for thematic analysis: thematicanalysis.net/ [opens external site]

  Sandelowski, M., & Leeman, J. (2012). Writing usable qualitative health research findings. Qualitative Health Research, 22(10), 1404-1413.

  Kiger ME, Varpio L. Thematic analysis of qualitative data: AMEE Guide No. 131. Med Teach. 2020;42(8):846-54.

  • These papers support researchers in understanding how to write up their qualitative research analysis, and particularly translating findings of thematic analysis into thematic statements. While some researchers stop short in their analysis and report topics (as though they are themes), these papers explain the difference between topics and themes to facilitate translation of the research.

  Qualitative content analysis

  Hsieh, H. F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277-1288.

  • This paper provides examples of different ways of conducting content analysis that align with analysis this is more descriptive than interpretive.  

  Ethnography

  Pope, C. (2005). Conducting ethnography in medical settings. Medical Education, 39(12), 1180-1187.

  • This paper discusses some practical and ethical issues involved in conducting ethnographic research in medical settings.
    

• Critical appraisal

  Just as for quantitative research, there are many checklists available to help readers appraise the quality of reporting of qualitative research. Perhaps the most comprehensive of these, being based on a systematic review of other checklists, is the COREQ (Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research), which some journals now specifically require. It’s worthwhile writing your protocol based on the COREQ to make sure you don’t get caught out later on!