© 2019 Elsevier B.V. 3D printing offers the flexibility to achieve favorable spacer geometrical modification. The role of 3D printed spacers for organic fouling mitigation in direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) is evaluated. Compared to a commercial spacer, the design of 3D printed triply periodic minimal surfaces spacers (Gyroid and tCLP) - varying filament thickness and smaller hydraulic diameter enhanced DCMD fluxes by 50–65%. The highest DCMD flux was obtained with the 3D tCLP spacer due to its specific geometrical design feature. However, its design characteristics resulted in higher channel pressure drop compared to 3D Gyroid spacer. Moreover, 3D Gyroid spacer exhibited superior fouling mitigation (lower membrane organic mass deposition and reversible membrane hydrophobicity with humic acid solution), attributed to its tortuous design that repelled foulants. 3D Gyroid spacer was effective in achieving high water recovery (85%) while maintaining good quality distillate (10–15 μS/cm, 99% ion rejection) in DCMD with wastewater concentrate that contained high organics, mixed with inorganics. In MD, high organic contents minimally affected MD fluxes but reduced membrane hydrophobicity. Repeated DCMD cycles showed that organic pre-treatment as well as cleaning-in-place of membrane and spacer are essential for achieving high recovery rate while maintaining a stable long-term DCMD operation with wastewater concentrate.

© 2019 Elsevier Ltd The current methods used for the production of activated carbon (AC) are often chemical and energy intensive and produce significant amount of chemical waste. Thus, clean production of AC is important to reduce its overall production cost and to limit the adverse effect on the environment. Therefore, the main aim of this study is to develop a clean method for AC production from woody biomass with low chemical consumption. Herein, this study reports a facile strategy for reducing chemical usages in the production of high-performance AC, by introducing a crucial pre-pyrolysis step before chemical activation of biomass. The ACs prepared were characterised using scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, nitrogen and carbon dioxide gas adsorption measurements. All these characterisations indicated that produced ACs have similar physicochemical properties. The strategy reduced chemical use by 70% and produced high-performance ultra-microporous ACs with excellent carbon dioxide adsorption capacity (4.22–5.44 mmol m −2 ). The facile pre-pyrolysis method is recommended for further research as a cleaner activated carbon preparation method from biomass feedstock.

© 2019, © 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. The degradation of diclofenac (DCF), trimethoprim (TMP), carbamazepine (CBZ), and sulfamethoxazole (SMX) by laccase from Trametes versicolor was investigated. Experiments were conducted using the pharmaceuticals individually, or as a mixture at different initial concentrations (1.25 and 5 mg/L each). The initial enzymatic activity of all the treated samples was around 430–460 U (DMP) /L. The removal of the four selected pharmaceuticals tested individually was more effective than when tested in mixtures under the same conditions. For example, 5 mg DCF/L was completely removed to below its detection limit (1 µg/L) within 8 h in the individual experiment vs. after 24 h when dosed as a mixture with the other pharmaceuticals. A similar trend was visible with other three pharmaceuticals, with 95 vs. 39%, 82 vs. 34% and 56 vs. 49% removal after 48 h with 5 mg/L of TMP, CBZ, and SMX tested individually or as mixtures, respectively. In addition, at the lower initial concentration (1.25 mg/L each), the removal efficiency of TMP, CBZ, and SMX in mixtures was lower than that obtained at the higher initial concentrations (5 mg/L each) during both the individual and combined treatments. Four enzymatic transformation products (TPs) were identified during the individual treatments of DCF and CBZ by T. versicolor. For TMP and SMX, no major TPs were observed under the experimental conditions used. The toxicity of the solution before and after enzymatic treatment of each pharmaceutical was also assessed and all treated effluent samples were verified to be non-toxic.

© 2018, Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature. High retention membrane bioreactors (HR-MBR) combine a high retention membrane separation process such as membrane distillation, forward osmosis, or nanofiltration with a conventional activated sludge (CAS) process. Depending on the physicochemical properties of the trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) as well as the selected high retention membrane process, HR-MBR can achieve effective removal (80–99%) of a broad spectrum of TrOCs. An in-depth assessment of the available literature on HR-MBR performance suggests that compared to CAS and conventional MBRs (using micro- or ultra-filtration membrane), aqueous phase removal of TrOCs in HR-MBR is significantly better. Conceptually, longer retention time may significantly improve TrOC biodegradation, but there are insufficient data in the literature to evaluate the extent of TrOC biodegradation improvement by HR-MBR. The accumulation of hardly biodegradable TrOCs within the bioreactor of an HR-MBR system may complicate further treatment and beneficial reuse of sludge. In addition to TrOCs, accumulation of salts gradually increases the salinity in bioreactor and can adversely affect microbial activities. Strategies to mitigate these limitations are discussed. A qualitative framework is proposed to predict the contribution of the different key mechanisms of TrOC removal (i.e., membrane retention, biodegradation, and sorption) in HR-MBR.

© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group This study investigated the influence of inorganic salts on enzymatic activity and the removal of trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) by crude laccase from the white-rot fungus Pleurotus ostreatus. A systematic analysis of 15 cations and anions from common inorganic salts was presented. Laccase activity was not inhibited by monovalent cations (i.e. Na + , NH 4 + , K + ), while the presence of divalent and trivalent cations showed variable impact – from negligible to complete inhibition – of both laccase activity and its TrOC removal performance. Of interest was the observation of discrepancy between residual laccase activity and TrOC removal in the presence of some ions. Mg 2+ had negligible impact on residual laccase activity but significant impact on TrOC removal. Conversely, F − showed greater impact on residual laccase activity than on TrOC removal. This observation indicated different impacts of the interfering ions on the interaction between laccase and TrOCs as compared to that between laccase and the reagent used to measure its activity, implicating that residual laccase activity may not always be an accurate indicator of TrOC removal. The degree of impact of halides was in the order of F −   >  I − >  Br −   >  Cl − . Particularly, the tolerance of the tested laccase to Cl − has important implications for a range of industrial applications.

© 2019, Springer Nature Switzerland AG. Purpose of Review: Regeneration of liquid desiccant solutions is critical for the liquid desiccant air conditioning (LDAC) process. In most LDAC systems, the weak desiccant solution is regenerated using the energy-intensive thermal evaporation method which suffers from desiccant carry-over. Recently, membrane processes have gained increasing interest as a promising method for liquid desiccant solution regeneration. This paper provides a comprehensive review on the applications of membrane processes for regeneration of liquid desiccant solutions. Fundamental knowledge, working principles, and the applications of four key membrane processes (e.g., reverse osmosis (RO), forward osmosis (FO), electrodialysis (ED), and membrane distillation (MD)) are discussed to shed light on their feasibility for liquid desiccant solution regeneration and the associated challenges. Recent Findings: RO is effective at preventing desiccant carry-over; however, current RO membranes are not compatible with hypersaline liquid desiccant solutions. FO deploys a concentrated draw solution to overcome the high osmotic pressure of liquid desiccant solutions; hence, it is feasible for their regeneration despite the issues with internal/external concentration polarization and reverse salt flux. ED has proven its technical feasibility for liquid desiccant solution regeneration; nevertheless, more research into the process energy efficiency and the recycling of spent solution are recommended. Finally, as a thermally driven process, MD is capable of regenerating liquid desiccant solutions, but it is adversely affected by the polarization effects associated with the hypersalinity of the solutions. Summary: Extensive studies are required to realize the applications of membrane processes for the regeneration of liquid desiccant solutions used for LDAC systems.

This study aims to investigate the production of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) from low strength wastewater at various hydraulic retention time (HRT) and organic loading rate (OLR) in a continuous anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) using glucose as carbon source. This experiment was performed without any selective inhibition of methanogens and the reactor pH was maintained at 7.0 ± 0.1. 48, 24, 18, 12, 8 and 6 h-HRTs were applied and the highest VFA concentration was recorded at 8 h with an overall VFA yield of 48.20 ± 1.21 mg VFA/100 mg CODfeed. Three different ORLs were applied (350, 550 and 715 mg CODfeed) at the optimum 8 h-HRT. The acetic and propanoic acid concentration maximums were (1.1845 ± 0.0165 and 0.5160 ± 0.0141 mili-mole/l respectively) at 550 mg CODfeed. The isobutyric acid concentration was highest (0.3580 ± 0.0407 mili-mole/l) at 715 mg CODfeed indicating butyric-type fermentation at higher organic loading rate.

© 2018 Elsevier B.V. This study evaluated the removal of diclofenac (DCF) in activated sludge and its long-term exposure effects on the function and structure of the microbial community. Activated sludge could remove <50% of 50 μg/L DCF. The removal decreased significantly to below 15% when DCF concentrations increased to 500 and 5000 μg/L. Quantitative assessment of the fate of DCF showed that its main removal routes were biodegradation (21%) and adsorption (7%), with other abiotic removals being insignificant (<5%). The biodegradation occurred through cometabolic mechanisms. DCF exposure in the range of 50–5000 μg/L did not disrupt the major functions of the activated sludge ecosystem (e.g. biomass yield and heterotrophic activity) over two months of DCF exposure. Consistently, 16S rRNA gene-based community analysis revealed that the overall community diversity (e.g. species richness and diversity) and structure of activated sludge underwent no significant alterations. The analysis did uncover a significant increase in several genera, Nitratireductor, Asticcacaulis, and Pseudacidovorax, which gained competitive advantages under DCF exposure. The enrichment of Nitratireductor, Asticcacaulis, and Pseudacidovorax genus might contribute to DCF biodegradation and emerge as a potential microbial niche for the removal of DCF.

This study examined the occurrence of 49 micropollutants in reclaimed water and Silver Perch (Bidyanus bidyanus) living in a reclaimed water reservoir. The numbers of micropollutants detected in reclaimed water, Silver Perch liver, and Silver Perch flesh were 20, 23, and 19, respectively. Concentrations of all micropollutants in reclaimed water, except benzotriazole, were well below the Australian Guideline for Recycled Water (AGRW) values for potable purposes. The concentration of benzotriazole in reclaimed water was 675 ± 130 ng/L while the AGRW value for this compound was 7 ng/L. Not all micropollutants detected in the water phase were identified in the Silver Perch flesh and liver tissues. Likewise, not all micropollutants detected in the Silver Perch flesh and liver were identified in the reclaimed water. In general, micropollutant concentrations in the liver were higher than in the flesh. Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) was detected at a trace level in reclaimed water well below the AGRW guideline value for potable purposes, but showed a high and medium bioconcentration factor in Silver Perch liver and flesh, respectively. In addition, the risk quotient for PFOS was medium and high when considering its concentration in Silver Perch liver and flesh, respectively. Results reported here highlight the need to evaluate multiple parameters for a comprehensive risk assessment. The results also single out PFOS as a notable contaminant of concern for further investigation.

© 2019 Very little information on the occurrence and risk assessment of antibiotics in the aquatic environment is reported for Vietnam, where antibiotics are assumed to be omnipresent in urban canals and lakes at high concentrations due to the easy accessibility of antibiotics without doctor prescription. This study provides comprehensive analysis of the occurrence of 23 antibiotics in urban canals (To Lich and Kim Nguu) and lakes (West Lake, Hoan Kiem, and Yen So) in Hanoi, Vietnam. Of these 23 antibiotics, 18 were detected in urban canals at above 67.9% detection frequency (DF). The concentrations of detected antibiotics were in the range from below quantification limit (MQL) to almost 50,000 ng/L, depending on the compound and sampling site. In urban canals, median concentration of amoxicillin, erythromycin, and sulfamethoxazole was >1000 ng/L while other antibiotics such as ampicillin, chloramphenicol, clindamycin, sulfamethazine, tetracycline, tylosin and vancomycin were detected at median concentrations of <100 ng/L. Similarly, 16 target antibiotics were also detected in urban lakes. Macrolides (azithromycin, clarithromycin, and erythromycin-H2O), fluoroquinolones (enrofloxacin and ofloxacin), lincosamides (clindamycin and lincomycin), and trimethoprim were ubiquitously detected in urban lakes (DF = 100%). In this study, potential risks of antibiotics in the investigated urban canals and lakes were assessed based on the predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) from the existing literature for antibiotic resistance selection (PNECARM) and ecological toxicity to aquatic organisms (PNECEcotox). Ampicillin, amoxicillin, azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, enrofloxacin, erythromycin, ofloxacin, tetracycline, and trimethoprim were found in the investigated urban canals at concentrations exceeding their PNECARM and PNECEcotox. Similarly, most of the target antibiotics (i.e. amoxicillin, ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, clindamycin, enrofloxacin, erythromyci...

© 2019 Elsevier Ltd Anaerobic methane generation from algae is hindered by the slow and poor algae biodegradability. A novel free ammonia (NH3 i.e. FA) pretreatment technology was proposed in this work to enhance anaerobic methane generation from algae cultivated using a real secondary effluent. The algae solubilisation was 0.05–0.06 g SCOD/g TCOD (SCOD: soluble chemical oxygen demand; TCOD: total chemical oxygen demand) following FA pretreatment of 240–530 mg NH3–N/L for 24 h, whereas the solubilisation was only 0.01 g SCOD/g TCOD for the untreated algae. This indicates that FA pretreatment at 240–530 mg NH3–N/L could substantially enhance algae solubilisation. Biochemical methane potential tests revealed that FA pretreatment on algae at 240–530 mg NH3–N/L is able to significantly enhance anaerobic methane generation. The hydrolysis rate (k) and biochemical methane potential (P0) of algae increased from 0.21 d−1 and 132 L CH4/kg TCOD to 0.33–0.50 d−1 and 140–154 L CH4/kg TCOD, respectively, after the algae was pretreated by FA at 240–530 mg NH3–N/L. Further analysis indicated that FA pretreatment improved k of both quickly and slowly biodegradable substrates, and also increased P0 of the slowly biodegradable substrate although it negatively affected P0 of the quickly biodegradable substrate. This FA technology is a closed-loop technology.

© 2019 Anaerobic co-digestion of sewage sludge with four beverage wastes (namely beer, soft drink, fruit juice, and wine)was evaluated using a dedicated pilot research plant. Temporal variation in the sludge's organic content highlighted the importance of using a mono-digestion control reactor for a systematic comparison with co-digestion. Results indicate that chemical oxygen demand (COD)is a better parameter compared to volatile solids (VS)for determining the organic loading rate during co-digestion with beverage waste that contain solubilised organic carbon. In this study, all beverage wastes investigated here (with the exception of wine)were suitable for co-digestion. H2S content in biogas decreased during co-digestion, possibly due to the dilution effect by the additional biogas generated from sulphur-lean organic rich waste. Results from this study show that the organic content in most beverage waste can be readily and completely converted to biogas. At 10% substrate addition (v/v)beer, soft drink and juice addition did not observably affect total COD and VS in the digestate, whilst increasing biomethane production relative to the control by 39, 41 and 64% respectively. Furthermore, the interchanging of co-substrates did not result in any observable impact on digestion performance. Further investigation is recommended to ascertain the low performance of wine waste co-digestion with sewage sludge.

© 2019 Elsevier Ltd Free nitrous acid (FNA) or freezing has been recently utilized as an efficient pretreatment method to increase short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) yield from waste activated sludge (WAS) anaerobic fermentation (AF). But until now, the performances and mechanisms of the co-pretreatment for SCFAs production are unknown. This research aimed to investigate the AF mechanisms through studying its influence on sludge solubilization and related bioprocesses. WAS was pretreated for 48 h with FNA (1.07 mg N/L), freezing (−5 °C) and combination of FNA and freezing (0.53–2.13 mg N/L FNA at −5 °C), respectively, then conducted batch AF. Experimental results indicated that the optimal total SCFAs yield of 391.19 ± 5.54 mg COD/g VSS was achieved after 1.07 mg N/L FNA + freezing pretreatment at 9 days of AF, which was 2.2, 1.6 and 1.3-fold of the blank, freezing and FNA pretreated samples, respectively. The mechanisms analysis showed that co-pretreatment showed synergetic effects on sludge disintegration and solubilization, which could release more soluble substrates for SCFAs production. The co-pretreatment resulted in slight inhibition to hydrolysis and negligible inhibition to acidogenesis but severe inhibition to methanogenesis, maybe due to less endurance of methanogens.

© 2019 Elsevier B.V. Scaling is a major obstacle to commercial application of membrane distillation (MD) for desalination. Contemporary understanding of scaling formation onto hydrophobic membrane was built on thermodynamic assumption of a non-slip condition. This research provides an alternative theory and a novel insight from a hydrodynamic view of slip boundary. We purposely selected three polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membranes with different surface characteristics - namely a tailor made superhydrophobic micro-pillared (CF4-MP-PVDF), a micro-pillared (MP-PVDF) and a commercial (C-PVDF) membranes, for direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) using a supersaturated CaSO4 feed. MD flux analysis showed that CF4-MP-PVDF was highly scaling resistant whereas the other two membranes were not. Nucleation energy barrier, wetting state factor and slip length were used to explain for the observed difference in scaling behavior. Results showed that hydrodynamic properties, such as the wetting state and slip length, play a critical role in determining the anti-scaling behavior of a hydrophobic membrane rather than the contact angle nor the thermodynamic nucleation energy barrier. New findings from this study serve as a new guideline for the fabrication of antiscaling membranes by creating a slippery surface.

In this study, forward osmosis (FO) membranes and fouling solutions were systematically characterized to elucidate the effects of organic fouling on the rejection of two pharmaceutically active compounds, namely, sulfamethoxazole and carbamazepine. Municipal wastewater resulted in a more severe flux decline compared to humic acid and sodium alginate fouling solutions. This result is consistent with the molecular weight distribution of these foulant solutions. Liquid chromatography with organic carbon detection analysis shows that municipal wastewater consists of mostly low molecular weight acids and neutrals, which produce a more compact cake layer on the membrane surface. By contrast, humic acid and sodium alginate consist of large molecular weight humic substances and biopolymers, respectively. The results also show that membrane fouling can significantly alter the membrane surface charge and hydrophobicity as well as the reverse salt flux. In particular, the reverse salt flux of a fouled membrane was significantly higher than that under clean conditions. Although the rejection of sulfamethoxazole and carbamazepine by FO membrane was high, a discernible impact of fouling on their rejection could still be observed. The results show that size exclusion is a major rejection mechanism of both sulfamethoxazole and carbamazepine. However, they respond to membrane fouling differently. Membrane fouling results in an increase in sulfamethoxazole rejection while carbamazepine rejection decreases due to membrane fouling.

© 2019 This study elucidates the impact of draw solution chemistry (in terms of pH and draw solute species) and membrane fouling on water flux and the rejection of trace organic contaminants by forward osmosis. The results show that draw solution chemistry could induce a notable impact on both water flux and TrOCs rejection. In addition, the impact was further influenced by membrane fouling. The reverse flux of proton (or hydroxyl) could alter the feed solution pH, which governed the separation of ionisable TrOCs. In addition, charged compounds generally exhibited higher rejections than neutral ones by the clean membrane. Electrostatic interaction, rather than size exclusion, was therefore the dominant rejection mechanism for most compounds. There was also a weak correlation between rejection and molecular sizes of the 43 TrOCs. Compared with Na+, Li+ with a larger hydrated radius showed a significantly lower reverse salt flux, resulting in a lower ionic strength and therefore a stronger electrostatic interaction. A fouling cake layer consisted of low molecular weight neutral organics could also affect TrOC rejection due to pore blockage and cake-enhanced concentration polarisation.

The sorptive removal of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in biologically-treated effluent was studied by using multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT), carboxylic functionalised MWCNT (MWCNT-COOH), hydroxyl functionalized MWCNT (MWCNT-OH) and functionalized biochar (fBC). DOM was dominated by hydrophilic fraction (79.6%) with a significantly lower hydrophobic fraction (20.4%). The sorption of hydrophobic DOM was not significantly affected by the sorbent functionality (∼10.4% variation) and sorption capacity followed the order of MWCNT > MWCNT-COOH > MWCNT-OH > fBC. In comparison, the sorption of hydrophilic fraction of DOM changed significantly (∼37.35% variation) with the change of sorbent functionality with adsorption capacity decreasing as MWCNT-OH > MWCNT-COOH > MWCNT > fBC. Furthermore, the affinity of adsorbents toward a hydrophilic compound (dinitrobenzene), a hydrophobic compound (pyrene) and humic acid was also evaluated to validate the proposed mechanisms. The results provided important insights on the type of sorbents which are most effective to remove different DOM fractions.

© 2017 The fouling propensity of digested sludge centrate, and the effectiveness of membrane flushing, air-scouring, and ultrasonication for physical cleaning were systematically evaluated. Accelerated fouling conditions were applied to simulate the long-term and intensive pre-concentration scenario that is required for phosphorus recovery from digested sludge centrate. The results suggest that membrane fouling during forward osmosis operation to pre-concentrate digested sludge centrate is mostly due to the deposition of small mineral crystals and particulate matter on the membrane surface. Both high cross-flow velocity flushing and ultrasonication were effective at preventing membrane fouling under accelerated fouling conditions. Our results also highlight the potential of intermittent membrane cleaning for achieving a higher cumulative permeate volume and lower energy consumption in comparison to continuous application to prevent membrane fouling. Among several physical cleaning regimes investigated in this study, the combination of ultrasonication and high cross-flow velocity flushing was the most effective and could maintain stable FO operation over several consecutive cleaning cycles.

This study assessed the performance and key challenges associated with the integration of forward osmosis (FO) and anaerobic digestion for wastewater treatment and resource recovery. Using a thin film composite polyamide FO membrane, maximising the pre-concentration factor (i.e. system water recovery) resulted in the enrichment of organics and salinity in wastewater. Biomethane potential evaluation indicated that methane production increased correspondingly with the FO pre-concentration factor due to the organic retention in the feed solution. At 90% water recovery, about 10% more methane was produced when using NaOAc compared with NaCl because of the contribution of biodegradable reverse NaOAc flux. No negative impact on anaerobic digestion was observed when wastewater was pre-concentrated ten-fold (90% water recovery) for both draw solutes. Interestingly, the unit cost of methane production using NaOAc was slightly lower than NaCl due to the lower reverse solute flux of NaOAc, although NaCl is a much cheaper chemical.

© 2018 This study systematically compares the performance of ultrafiltration (UF) and nanofiltration (NF) based enzymatic membrane bioreactors (EMBRs) for the degradation of five micropollutants, namely atrazine, carbamazepine, sulfamethoxazole, diclofenac and oxybenzone to elucidate the impact of effective membrane retention of micropollutants on their degradation. Based on the permeate quality, NF-EMBR achieved 92–99.9% micropollutant removal (i.e., biodegradation + membrane retention), while the removal of these micropollutants by UF-EMBR varied from 20 to 85%. Mass balance analysis revealed that micropollutant degradation was improved by 15–30% in NF-EMBR as compared to UF-EMBR, which could be attributed to the prolonged contact time between laccase and micropollutants following their effective retention by the NF membrane. A small decline in permeate flux was observed during EMBR operation. However, the flux could be recovered by flushing the membrane with permeate.

Laccase-catalyzed degradation of a broad spectrum of trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) by a membrane distillation (MD)-enzymatic membrane bioreactor (EMBR) was investigated. The MD component effectively retained TrOCs (94-99%) in the EMBR, facilitating their continuous biocatalytic degradation. Notably, the extent of TrOC degradation was strongly influenced by their molecular properties. A significant degradation (above 90%) of TrOCs containing strong electron donating functional groups (e.g., hydroxyl and amine groups) was achieved, while a moderate removal was observed for TrOCs containing electron withdrawing functional groups (e.g., amide and halogen groups). Separate addition of two redox-mediators, namely syringaldehyde and violuric acid, further improved TrOC degradation by laccase. However, a mixture of both showed a reduced performance for a few pharmaceuticals such as primidone, carbamazepine and ibuprofen. Mediator addition increased the toxicity of the media in the enzymatic bioreactor, but the membrane permeate (i.e., final effluent) was non-toxic, suggesting an added advantage of coupling MD with EMBR.

Antibiotic wastewater has become a major concern due to the toxicity and recalcitrance of antibiotics. Anaerobic membrane bioreactors (AnMBRs) are considered alternative technology for treating antibiotic wastewater because of their advantages over the conventional anaerobic processes and aerobic MBRs. However, membrane fouling remains the most challenging issue in the AnMBRs' operation and this limits their application. This review critically discusses: (i) antibiotics removal and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in different types of AnMBRs and the impact of antibiotics on membrane fouling and (ii) the integrated AnMBRs systems for fouling control and removal of antibiotics. The presence of antibiotics in AnMBRs could aggravate membrane fouling by influencing fouling-related factors (i.e., sludge particle size, extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), soluble microbial products (SMP), and fouling-related microbial communities). Conclusively, integrated AnMBR systems can be a practical technology for antibiotic wastewater treatment.

Wastewater is now considered to be a vital reusable source of water reuse and saving energy. However, current wastewater has multiple limitations such as high energy costs, large quantities of residuals being generated and lacking in potential resources. Recently, great attention has been paid to microbial fuel cells (MFCs) due to their mild operating conditions where a variety of biodegradable substrates can serve as fuel. MFCs can be used in wastewater treatment facilities to break down organic matter, and they have also been analysed for application as a biosensor such as a sensor for biological oxygen which demands monitoring. MFCs represent an innovation technology solution that is simple and rapid. Despite the advantages of this technology, there are still practical barriers to consider including low electricity production, current instability, high internal resistance and costly materials used. Thus, many problems must be overcome and doing this requires a more detailed analysis of energy production, consumption, and application. Currently, real-world applications of MFCs are limited due to their low power density level of only several thousand mW/m2. Efforts are being made to improve the performance and reduce the construction and operating costs of MFCs. This paper explores several aspects of MFCs such as anode, cathode and membrane, and in an effort to overcome the practical challenges of this system.

© 2018 The capacity of membrane distillation (MD) to regenerate three commonly used liquid desiccant solutions (i.e. CaCl2, LiCl, and a mixture of CaCl2/LiCl) for liquid desiccant air-conditioners (LDAC) was evaluated. The results demonstrate considerable impact of the concentration polarisation effect on the process water flux during MD regeneration of these three desiccant solutions. For each of these liquid desiccant solutions, the experimentally measured water flux of the MD process was about half of the calculated value using the process mass transfer coefficient (Km) obtained during the process characterisation without taking into account the concentration polarisation effect. The observed deviation between the experimentally measured and calculated process water flux indicates the need to include the concentration polarisation effect in the model for calculating water flux. Although Ca2+ concentration in the CaCl2 and CaCl2/LiCl liquid desiccant solutions exceeded the solubility limit for CaCO3, membrane scaling was not observed. Nevertheless, there was evidence that membrane fouling might occur during extended MD regeneration of liquid desiccant solutions containing CaCl2.

© 2018, Springer Nature Switzerland AG. Seawater and brackish water desalination has been a practical approach to mitigating the global fresh water scarcity. Current large-scale desalination installations worldwide can complementarily augment the global fresh water supplies, and their capacities are steadily increasing year-on-year. Despite substantial technological advance, desalination processes are deemed energy-intensive and considerable sources of CO2 emission, leading to the urgent need for innovative low carbon desalination platforms. This paper provides a comprehensive review on innovations in membrane processes and membrane materials for low carbon desalination. In this paper, working principles, intrinsic attributes, technical challenges, and recent advances in membrane materials of the membrane-based desalination processes, exclusively including commercialised reverse osmosis (RO) and emerging forward osmosis (FO), membrane distillation (MD), electrodialysis (ED), and capacitive deionisation (CDI), are thoroughly analysed to shed light on the prospect of low carbon desalination.

© 2017 In this study, a novel hydrophobic, microporous membrane was fabricated from styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) polymer using electrospinning and evaluated for membrane distillation applications. Compared to a commercially available polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membrane, the SBS membrane had larger membrane pore size and fiber diameter and comparable membrane porosity. The fabricated SBS showed slightly lower water flux than the PTFE membrane because it was two times thicker. However, the SBS membrane had better salt rejection and most importantly could be fabricated via a simple process. The SBS membrane was also more hydrophobic than the reference PTFE membrane. In particular, as temperature of the reference water liquid increased to 60 °C, the SBS membrane remained hydrophobic with a contact angle of 100° whereas the PTFE became hydrophilic with a contact angle of less than 90°. The hydrophobic membrane surface prevented the intrusion of liquid into the membrane pores, thus improving the salt rejection of the SBS membrane. In addition, the SBS membrane had superior mechanical strength over the PTFE membrane. Using the SBS membrane, stable water flux was achieved throughout an extended MD operation period of 120 h to produce excellent quality distillate (over 99.7% salt rejection) from seawater.

A new membrane fouling control technique using ozonated water flushing was evaluated for direct nanofiltration (NF) of secondary wastewater effluent using a ceramic NF membrane. Experiments were conducted at a permeate flux of 44 L/m²h to evaluate the ozonated water flushing technique for fouling mitigation. Surface flushing with clean water did not effectively remove foulants from the NF membrane. In contrast, surface flushing with ozonated water (4 mg/L dissolved ozone) could effectively remove most foulants to restore the membrane permeability. This surface flushing technique using ozonated water was able to limit the progression of fouling to 35% in transmembrane pressure increase over five filtration cycles. Results from this study also heighten the need for further development of ceramic NF membrane to ensure adequate removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) for water recycling applications. The ceramic NF membrane used in this study showed approximately 40% TOC rejection, and the rejection of PPCPs was generally low and highly variable. It is expected that the fouling mitigation technique developed here is even more important for ceramic NF membranes with smaller pore size and thus better PPCP rejection.

© 2018 The Royal Society of Chemistry. Public health protection and cost effectiveness of potable reuse can be improved by providing reliable water quality assurance for removal of trace organic compounds (TOrCs) by reverse osmosis (RO) membranes. This study evaluated the effectiveness of online monitoring of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) removal using a RO system to ensure the removal of low molecular weight TOrCs. Among the 51 TOrCs selected in this study, a major focus was placed on 1,4-dioxane due to the limited information on the removal of 1,4-dioxane by RO. Laboratory-scale experiments showed that the rejection of 1,4-dioxane by two commercial RO membranes - ESPA2 and HYDRA (98 and 99%, respectively) - was higher than that of NDMA (57 and 81%, respectively). Pilot-scale experiments using treated wastewater identified a strong linear correlation between 1,4-dioxane and NDMA rejection over a range of feed temperature. The pilot-scale results also demonstrated the applicability of NDMA as a conservative performance indicator for 46 other TOrCs at two different RO feed temperatures. These results suggest that online monitoring of NDMA in RO feed and permeate can allow for ensuring the removal of larger TOrCs, which could provide additional protection of public health in potable reuse.

Pre-concentration is essential for energy and resource recovery from municipal wastewater. The potential of forward osmosis (FO) membranes to pre-concentrate wastewater for subsequent biogas production has been demonstrated, although biofouling has also emerged as a prominent challenge. This study, using a cellulose triacetate FO membrane, shows that chloramination of wastewater in the feed solution at 3⁻8 mg/L residual monochloramine significantly reduces membrane biofouling. During a 96-h pre-concentration, flux in the chloraminated FO system decreased by only 6% and this flux decline is mostly attributed to the increase in salinity (or osmotic pressure) of the feed due to pre-concentration. In contrast, flux in the non-chloraminated FO system dropped by 35% under the same experimental conditions. When the feed was chloraminated, the number of bacterial particles deposited on the membrane surface was significantly lower compared to a non-chloraminated wastewater feed. This study demonstrated, for the first time, the potential of chloramination to inhibit bacteria growth and consequently biofouling during pre-concentration of wastewater using a FO membrane.

© 2018 Elsevier B.V. The polyamide skin layer of reverse osmosis (RO) membranes was characterised using advanced and complementary analytical techniques to investigate the mechanisms underlying the permeation of contaminants of emerging concern in potable water reuse – N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) and N-nitrosomethylethylamine (NMEA). This study used five RO membrane samples with similar membrane properties. The five RO membrane samples spanned over a large range of water permeance (0.9–5.8 L/m2 h bar) as well as permeation of NDMA (9–66%) and NMEA (3–29%). Despite these differences among the five RO membranes, characterisations of the skin layer using positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy and field emission scanning electron microscopy revealed almost no variation in their free-volume hole-radius (0.270–0.275 nm), effective surface area (198–212%) and thickness (30–35 nm) of the skin layer. The results suggest that there could be other RO skin layer properties, such as the interconnectivity of the protuberances within the polyamide skin layer additional to the free-volume hole-size and thickness of the skin layer, which can also govern water and solute permeation.

This study evaluated micropollutants removal and membrane fouling behaviour of a hybrid moving bed biofilm reactor-membrane bioreactor (MBBR-MBR) system at four different hydraulic retention times (HRTs) (24, 18, 12 and 6h). The results revealed that HRT of 18h was the optimal condition regarding the removal of most selected micropollutants. As the primary removal mechanism in the hybrid system was biodegradation, the attached growth pattern was desirable for enriching slow growing bacteria and developing a diversity of biocoenosis. Thus, the efficient removal of micropollutants was obtained. In terms of membrane fouling propensity analysis, a longer HRT (e.g. HRTs of 24 and 18h) could significantly mitigate membrane fouling when compared with the shortest HRT of 6h. Hence, enhanced system performance could be achieved when the MBBR-MBR system was operated at HRT of 18h.

The gradual increase of organic and inorganic micropollutants in natural and drinking watercourses has posed a greater challenge for current water treatment technologies. Currently established water treatment processes such as activated sludge, microfiltration, reverse osmosis, adsorption, carbon nanotube etc. have a limited range of application, low energy recovery, and cost-intensive operation. Membrane bioreactor has already been utilized as a useful option to remove soluble organics, nutrients, and micropollutants from wastewater. Although currently established Membrane Bioreactors have few limitations, recent developments on this technology have improved its energy efficiency and reduced the operating and maintenance cost. Implementing these research findings in full-scale operation can make this process a favorable option in industrial wastewater treatment.

In this study, we investigated the performance of an osmotic membrane bioreactor (OMBR) enabled by a novel biomimetic aquaporin forward osmosis (FO) membrane. Membrane performance and removal of 30 trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) were examined. Results show that the aquaporin FO membrane had better transport properties in comparison with conventional cellulose triacetate and polyamide thin-film composite FO membranes. In particular, the aquaporin FO membrane exhibited much lower salt permeability and thus smaller reverse salt flux, resulting in a less severe salinity build-up in the bioreactor during OMBR operation. During OMBR operation, the aquaporin FO membrane well complemented biological treatment for stable and excellent contaminant removal. All 30 TrOCs selected here were removed by over 85% regardless of their diverse properties. Such high and stable contaminant removal over OMBR operation also indicates the stability and compatibility of the aquaporin FO membrane in combination with activated sludge treatment.

© 2018 Elsevier B.V. Membrane fouling by dissolved organic matter (EfOM) in secondary treated effluent is a problematic and inevitable issue during wastewater reclamation using low pressure membrane filtration. This study evaluates the performance of coagulation/flocculation (C/F) using two recently developed coagulants (namely TiCl 4 and ZrCl 4 ) in comparison to conventional alum (i.e. Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 ) as pretreatment to remove EfOM for subsequent ultrafiltration (UF) membrane fouling mitigation. At the optimal dosage, TiCl 4 -based C/F pretreatment showed the greatest performance in membrane fouling mitigation, followed by ZrCl 4 and then alum. The underlying mechanisms were well explained by classical fouling models and the extended Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (xDLVO) theory, highlighting a dominant role of standard blocking in the fouling potential of the C/F treated EfOM. The interfacial free energy of cohesion and adhesion showed that C/F pretreatment using TiCl 4 and ZrCl 4 as coagulant can lower the binding affinity between EfOM molecules and between EfOM molecules and membrane surface, ultimately reduce membrane fouling. The results of size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and fluorescence excitation emission matrix- parallel factor analysis (EEM-PARAFAC) also supported the classical fouling mechanisms, providing additional insights into the potential roles of chemical interactions in the preferential removal of certain organic substances by C/F pretreatment and the chemical composition of subsequent membrane foulants. Protein-like components were highly associated with reversible fouling after the C/F, while the reversibility of humic-like substances was enhanced upon C/F pretreatment. After C/F pretreatment, small sized EfOM molecules became the dominant fraction responsible for UF membrane fouling.

The relative ratios of chemical oxygen demand (COD) to nitrogen (N) in wastewater are known to have profound effects on the characteristics of soluble microbial products (SMP) from activated sludge. In this study, the changes in the SMP characteristics upon different COD/N ratios and the subsequent effects on ultrafiltration (UF) membrane fouling potentials were examined in sequencing batch reactors (SBR) using excitation emission matrix-parallel factor analysis (EEM-PARAFAC) and size exclusion chromatography (SEC). Three unique fluorescent components were identified from the SMP samples in the bioreactors operated at the COD/N ratios of 100/10 (N rich), 100/5 (N medium), and 100/2 (N deficient). The tryptophan-like component (C1) was the most depleted at the N medium condition. Fulvic-like (C2) and humic-like (C3) components were more abundant with N rich wastewater. Greater abundances of large size biopolymer (BP) and low molecular weight neutrals (LMWN) were found under the N deficient and N rich conditions, respectively. SMPs from various COD/N exhibited a greater degree on membrane fouling following the order of 100/2 > 100/10 > 100/5. C1 and C2 had close associations with reversible and irreversible fouling, respectively, while the reversible fouling potential of C3 depended on the COD/N ratios. No significant impact of COD/N ratio was observed on the relative contributions of SMP size fractions to either reversible or irreversible fouling potential. However, the COD/N ratios likely altered the BP foulants' composition with greater contribution of proteinaceous substances to reversible fouling under the N deficient condition than at other N richer conditions. The opposite trend was observed for irreversible fouling. Our results provided further insight into changes in different SMP constitutes and their membrane fouling in response to microbial activities under different COD/N ratios.

A comprehensive mathematical model was constructed to evaluate the complex substrate and microbial interaction in algal-bacterial photo sequencing batch reactors (PSBR). The kinetics of metabolite, growth and endogenous respiration of ammonia oxidizing bacteria, nitrite oxidizing bacteria and heterotrophic bacteria were coupled to those of microalgae and then embedded into widely-used activated sludge model series. The impact of light intensity was considered for microalgae growth, while the effect of inorganic carbon was considered for each microorganism. The integrated model framework was assessed using experimental data from algal-bacterial consortia performing sidestream nitritation/denitritation. The validity of the model was further evaluated based on dataset from PSBR performing mainstream nitrification. The developed model could satisfactorily capture the dynamics of microbial populations and substrates under different operational conditions (i.e. feeding, carbon dosing and illuminating mode, light intensity, influent ammonium concentration), which might serve as a powerful tool for optimizing the novel algal-bacterial nitrogen removal processes.

A pilot-scale study was conducted to investigate the fate of trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) during anaerobic digestion of primary sludge. Of the 44 TrOCs monitored, 24 were detected in all primary sludge samples. Phase distribution of TrOCs was correlated well with their hydrophobicity (>67% mass in the solid phase when LogD > 1.5). The pilot-scale anaerobic digester achieved a steady performance with a specific methane yield of 0.39-0.92 L/gVSremoved and methane composition of 63-65% despite considerable variation in the primary sludge. The fate of TrOCs in the aqueous and solid phases was governed by their physicochemical properties. Biotransformation was significant (>83%) for five TrOCs with logD < 1.5 and electron donating functional groups in molecular structure. The remaining TrOCs with logD < 1.5 were persistent and thus accumulated in the aqueous phase. Most TrOCs with logD > 1.5 were poorly removed under anaerobic conditions. Sorption onto the solid phase appears to impede the biodegradation of these TrOCs.

© 2018 This review examines the potential of anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) to serve as the core technology for simultaneous recovery of clean water, energy, and nutrient from wastewater. The potential is significant as AnMBR treatment can remove a board range of trace organic contaminants relevant to water reuse, convert organics in wastewater to biogas for subsequent energy production, and liberate nutrients to soluble forms (e.g. ammonia and phosphorus) for subsequent recovery for fertilizer production. Yet, there remain several significant challenges to the further development of AnMBR. These challenges evolve around the dilute nature of municipal wastewater, which entails the need for pre-concentrating wastewater prior to AnMBR, and hence, issues related to salinity build-up, accumulation of substances, membrane fouling, and membrane stability. Strategies to address these challenges are proposed and discussed. A road map for further research is also provided to guide future AnMBR development toward resource recovery.

This study investigated the impact of sulphur content on the performance of an anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) with an emphasis on the biological stability, contaminant removal, and membrane fouling. Removal of 38 trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) that are ubiquitously present in municipal wastewater by AnMBR was evaluated. Results show that basic biological performance of AnMBR regarding biomass growth and the removal of chemical oxygen demand (COD) was not affected by sulphur addition when the influent COD/SO42- ratio was maintained higher than 10. Nevertheless, the content of hydrogen sulphate in the produced biogas increased significantly and membrane fouling was exacerbated with sulphur addition. Moreover, the increase in sulphur content considerably affected the removal of some hydrophilic TrOCs and their residuals in the sludge phase during AnMBR operation. By contrast, no significant impact on the removal of hydrophobic TrOCs was noted with sulphur addition to AnMBR.

In this study, a direct contact membrane distillation (MD) unit was integrated with an anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) to simultaneously recover energy and produce high quality water for reuse from wastewater. Results show that AnMBR could produce 0.3-0.5L/g CODadded biogas with a stable methane content of approximately 65%. By integrating MD with AnMBR, bulk organic matter and phosphate were almost completely removed. The removal of the 26 selected trace organic contaminants by AnMBR was compound specific, but the MD process could complement AnMBR removal, leading to an overall efficiency from 76% to complete removal by the integrated system. The results also show that, due to complete retention, organic matter (such as humic-like and protein-like substances) and inorganic salts accumulated in the MD feed solution and therefore resulted in significant fouling of the MD unit. As a result, the water flux of the MD process decreased continuously. Nevertheless, membrane pore wetting was not observed throughout the operation.

© 2018 The Royal Society of Chemistry. This study proposed a new approach to apply the steric pore-flow model to predict the rejection of eight N-nitrosamines and seven VOCs that are of great concern in potable water reuse through an RO membrane. In this approach, solute rejection is predicted by estimating the free-volume hole-size. The free-volume hole-radius was determined with pure water permeability of a membrane and a single reference compound-N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA)-by minimizing the variance between the experimentally obtained and calculated NDMA rejection values at the permeate flux of 20 L m-2 h-1. The obtained free-volume hole-radius of the ESPA2 RO membrane was 0.348 nm, which was larger than the value previously determined by positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy (PALS) analysis (0.289 nm). The model incorporated with the estimated free-volume hole-radius could accurately predict the rejection of eight N-nitrosamines under a range of permeate flux (2.6-20 L m-2 h-1). The model was also validated using experimentally obtained VOC rejection values. The predicted VOC rejections at the permeate flux of 20 L m-2 h-1 were almost identical to their experimentally obtained rejections. However, VOC rejection prediction at a lower permeate flux was less accurate. Further improvement and validation of the model with a variety of trace organic chemicals is required to allow for a more accurate prediction. The model was also validated using the membrane free-volume hole-radius value previously obtained from PALS analysis. Using PALS data resulted in some over-prediction. The results suggest that additional adjustment is necessary when using data from PALS analysis for predicting the rejection of small and uncharged solutes.

© 2018 The Royal Society of Chemistry. This study demonstrated the potential of seawater-driven forward osmosis for enriching organic matter in digested sludge centrate. The results indicated that the cellulose triacetate membrane offered better performance than the polyamide membrane in terms of organic materials enrichment, fouling resistance and membrane cleaning efficiency. Membrane fouling decreased the enrichment efficiency of organic matter since the deposition of suspended particulate matter on the membrane surface caused fouling and loss of organic matter from the concentrated sludge centrate. The results showed that increasing the draw solution concentration increased flux but did not aggravate membrane fouling, however, it could reduce the efficiency of physical flushing to recover the flux. Seawater showed comparable forward osmosis performance to that of analytical grade NaCl as draw solutes in terms of flux and organic enrichment. The results also showed that seawater as the draw solution resulted in more membrane fouling and lower flux recovery compared to NaCl.

Soft drink beverage waste (BW) was evaluated as a potential substrate for anaerobic co-digestion with sewage sludge to increase biogas production. Results from this study show that the increase in biogas production is proportional to the increase in organic loading rate (OLR) rate due to BW addition. The OLR increase of 86 and 171% corresponding to 10 and 20% BW by volume in the feed resulted in 89 and 191% increase in biogas production, respectively. Under a stable condition, anaerobic co-digestion with BW did not lead to any significant impact on digestate quality (in terms of COD removal and biosolids odour) and biogas composition. The results suggest that existing nutrients in sewage sludge can support an increase in OLR by about 2 kg COD/m3/d from a carbon rich substrate such as soft drink BW without inhibition or excessive impact on subsequent handling of the digestate.

We investigated transport mechanisms of trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) through aquaporin thin-film composite forward osmosis (FO) membrane, and membrane stability under extreme conditions with respect to TrOC rejections. Morphology and surface chemistry of the aquaporin membrane were characterised to identify the incorporation of aquaporin vesicles into membrane active layer. Pore hindrance model was used to estimate aquaporin membrane pore size as well as to describe TrOC transport. TrOC transport mechanisms were revealed by varying concentration and type of draw solutions. Experimental results showed that mechanism of TrOC transport through aquaporin-embedded FO membrane was dominated by solution-diffusion mechanism. Non-ionic TrOC rejections were molecular-weight dependent, suggesting steric hindrance mechanisms. On the other hand, ionic TrOC rejections were less sensitive to molecular size, indicating electrostatic interaction. TrOC transport through aquaporin membrane was also subjected to retarded forward diffusion where reverse draw solute flux could hinder the forward diffusion of feed TrOC solutes, reducing their permeation through the FO membrane. Aquaporin membrane stability was demonstrated by either heat treatment or ethanol solvent challenges. Thermal stability of the aquaporin membrane was manifested as a relatively unchanged TrOC rejection before and after the heat treatment challenge test. By contrast, ethanol solvent challenge resulted in a decrease in TrOC rejection, which was evident by the disappearance of the lipid tail of the aquaporin vesicles from infrared spectrum and a notable decrease in the membrane pore size.

© 2017 Institution of Chemical Engineers The photolysis of diclofenac (DCF), sulfamethoxazole (SMX), carbamazepine (CBZ), and trimethoprim (TMP) was investigated using a low-pressure (LP) mercury ultraviolet (UV) lamp (254 nm) and a combination of UV with hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ). For each experiment, 5 mg/L of each pharmaceutical was prepared in pure water and individually degraded by either UV alone or UV/H 2 O 2 . DCF and SMX were highly susceptible to UV treatment and completely degraded to below their LC–MS detection limit (1 μg/L) after only 8 min of UV irradiation. TMP and CBZ were more resistant to UV treatment, with only 58.2 and 25.2% degradation (after 1 h UV exposure). The combination of H 2 O 2 addition (up to 0.2 g/L) with UV significantly improved the removal rate of TMP and CBZ up to 91.2 and 99.7% of the initial concentration, respectively. A number of novel transformation compounds were identified as UV or UV/H 2 O 2 degradation products using LC–MS. The range and amount of these transformation compounds strongly depended on the applied treatment conditions. The toxicity of each pharmaceutical solution before and after treatment was also evaluated and all parent compounds were non-toxic at the tested concentration (i.e. 5 mg/L). DCF, in particular, but also CBZ and SMX, showed an increase in solution toxicity after treatment with UV only, indicating the presence of photolytic degradation products that are more toxic than the parent compounds. Treatment with UV/H 2 O 2 reduced the toxicity of all solutions to below the detection limit of the assay.

© 2016 Elsevier Ltd This study investigates the mass transfer mechanisms and the performance of membrane electrodialysis (ED) for regenerating lithium chloride (LiCl) solution commonly used in liquid desiccant dehumidification systems. Experiments were conducted using an ED experimental system while numerical simulation was performed using COMSOL Multiphysics. The results showed that the water flux transfer due to osmosis and electro-osmosis during ED regeneration of LiCl liquid desiccant was significant and could not be ignored. The water flux due to osmosis and electro-osmosis is directly associated with the osmotic gradient and the applied current between the cathode and anode, respectively. The average flux of water from the spent solution to the regenerated solution decreased from 0.292 to 0.161 g/s m 2 when the initial concentration of the solutions in the spent and regenerated tanks increased from 18 to 30% (wt/wt) with the same applied current of 12 A and the same solution flow rate of 100 L/h. On the other hand, the salt flux due to osmosis was insignificant. The average salt flux transfer was 0.0053 g/s m 2 when the initial concentration difference between the regenerated and the spent channels was 25% (wt/wt). Simulations were conducted to elucidate the relationship between the concentration profile of LiCl solution along the membrane surface and the concentration polarization in the ED channel with respect to the circulation flow rate and applied current. Overall, the results suggest that the concentration difference between the regenerated and spent LiCl solutions should be minimized for an optimum ED performance.

© 2017 Elsevier B.V. Novel buckypaper (BP) membranes for nanofiltration application were fabricated from multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNT) and biopolymer containing quaternary amine groups (chitosan and chitosan-crosslinked by in-situ amine crosslinking). Characteristics of the BP membranes were systematically characterized in terms of mechanical (tensile strengths varied between 49 ± 4 and 59 ± 3 MPa) and electrical properties (60 ± 1 to 70 ± 1 S/cm), contact angle (76 ± 3° to 102 ± 3°), surface morphology, membrane swelling, pore size, surface charge, solubility, water permeability (ranging from 019 ± 0.01 to 0.87 ± 0.03 L m − 2 h − 1 bar − 1 ), and salts rejection (80–95% for MgCl 2 , 21–63% for NaCl, 18–37% for MgSO 4 and 6–14% for Na 2 SO 4 ). These BP membranes were able to sustain up to 18 bar of pressure. Their properties were significantly affected by the type of biopolymer modifiers. The highest water permeability was obtained with the MWNT/chitosan BP membrane, while the MWNT/chitosan-crosslinked membranes showed the best salt rejection performance. In addition, separation performance by these membranes appeared to be governed by the unhydrated radii of these inorganic salts.

© 2017 Forward osmosis (FO) is an emerging membrane separation technology that has the potential to serve as a game changer in wastewater treatment. FO-based processes can simultaneously produce high quality effluent and pre-concentrated wastewater for anaerobic treatment to facilitate the recovery of energy and nutrients. Complex wastewaters can be directly pre-treated by FO and fresh water can be produced when coupled with a draw solute recovery process (i.e. reverse osmosis or membrane distillation). By enriching organic carbon and nutrients for subsequent biogas production, FO extends the resource recovery potential of current wastewater treatment processes. Here, we critically review recent applications of FO for simultaneous treatment and resource recovery from municipal wastewater. Research conducted to date highlights the importance of successfully integrating FO with anaerobic treatment. Emphasis is also placed on the development of novel FO-based hybrid systems utilising alternative energy sources for draw solute recovery. There remain several technical challenges to the practical realisation of FO for resource recovery from wastewater including salinity build-up, membrane fouling, and system scale-up. Strategies to overcome these challenges are critically assessed to establish a research roadmap for further development of FO as a platform for resource recovery from wastewater.

White-rot fungi (WRF) and their ligninolytic enzymes have been investigated for the removal of a broad spectrum of trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) mostly from synthetic wastewater in lab-scale experiments. Only a few studies have reported the efficiency of such systems for the removal of TrOCs from real wastewater. Wastewater derived organic and inorganic compounds can inhibit: (i) WRF growth and their enzyme production capacity; (ii) enzymatic activity of ligninolytic enzymes; and (iii) catalytic efficiency of both WRF and enzymes. It is observed that essential metals such as Cu, Mn and Co at trace concertation (up to 1 mM) can improve the growth of WRF species, whereas non-essential metal such as Pb, Cd and Hg at 1 mM concentration can inhibit WRF growth and their enzyme production. In the case of purified enzymes, most of the tested metals at 1-5 mM concentration do not significantly inhibit the activity of laccases. Organic interfering compounds such as oxalic acid and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) at 1 mM concentration are potent inhibitors of WRF and their extracellular enzymes. However, inhibitory effects induced by interfering compounds are strongly influenced by the type of WRF species as well as experimental conditions (e.g., incubation time and TrOC type). In this review, mechanisms and factors governing the interactions of interfering compounds with WRF and their ligninolytic enzymes are reviewed and elucidated. In addition, the performance of WRF and their ligninolytic enzymes for the removal of TrOCs from synthetic and real wastewater is critically summarized.

© 2017 by the authors. A high retention enzymatic bioreactor was developed by coupling membrane distillation with an enzymatic bioreactor (MD-EMBR) to investigate the degradation of 13 phenolic and 17 non-phenolic trace organic contaminants (TrOCs). TrOCs were effectively retained (90–99%) by the MD membrane. Furthermore, significant laccase-catalyzed degradation (80–99%) was achieved for 10 phenolic and 3 non-phenolic TrOCs that contain strong electron donating functional groups. For the remaining TrOCs, enzymatic degradation ranged from 40 to 65%. This is still higher than those reported for enzymatic bioreactors equipped with ultrafiltration membranes, which retained laccase but not the TrOCs. Addition of three redox-mediators, namely syringaldehyde (SA), violuric acid (VA) and 1-hydroxybenzotriazole (HBT), in the MD-EMBR significantly broadened the spectrum of efficiently degraded TrOCs. Among the tested redox-mediators, VA (0.5 mM) was the most efficient and versatile mediator for enhanced TrOC degradation. The final effluent (i.e., membrane permeate) toxicity was below the detection limit, although there was a mediator-specific increase in toxicity of the bioreactor media.

© 2017, Springer International Publishing AG. White-rot fungi (WRF) mediated treatment can offer an environmentally friendly platform for the removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) from wastewater. These PPCPs may have adverse impacts on aquatic organisms and even human and thus their removal during wastewater treatment is of significant interest to the water industry. Whole-cell WRF or their extracellular lignin modifying enzymes (LMEs) have been reported to efficiently degrade PPCPs that are persistent to conventional activated sludge process. WRF mediated treatment of PPCPs depends on a number of factors including physicochemical properties of PPCPs (e.g., hydrophobicity and chemical structure) and wastewater matrix (e.g., pH, temperature, and dissolved constituents), type of WRF species and their specific extracellular enzymes. This review critically analyzes the performance of whole-cell WRF and their LMEs for the removal of PPCPs; particularly, it offers insights into PPCP removal mechanisms (e.g., biosorption vs. biodegradation) and degradation pathways as well as the formation of intermediate byproducts.

© 2017 Elsevier Ltd A novel membrane distillation – enzymatic membrane bioreactor (MD-EMBR) system was developed for efficient degradation of trace organic contaminants (TrOCs). Degradation of five TrOCs, namely carbamazepine, oxybenzone, diclofenac, atrazine and sulfamethoxazole was examined using two commercially available laccases (from Trametes versicolor and Aspergillus oryzae). The MD system ensured complete retention ( > 99%) of both enzyme and TrOCs. Of particular interest was that the complete retention of the TrOCs resulted in high TrOC degradation by both laccases. Oxybenzone and diclofenac degradation in the MD-EMBR ranged between 80 and 99%. Compared to previously developed EMBRs, as much as 40% improvement in the removal of resistant non-phenolic TrOCs (e.g., carbamazepine) was observed. Laccase from A. oryzae demonstrated better TrOC degradation and enzymatic stability. With the addition of redox mediators, namely 1-hydroxybenzotriazole (HBT) or violuric acid (VA), TrOC degradation was improved by 10–20%. This is the first demonstration of a laccase-based high retention membrane bioreactor for enhanced biodegradation of TrOCs.

© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. Hydrophobic membrane contactors represent a credible solution to the problem of recycling ammoniacal nitrogen from waste, water or wastewater resources. This study critically evaluated existing literature in terms of process principles, membrane types and functionality, membrane contactor application, technology status, and future research required. The key operational parameter was the presence of ammonia gas and thus pH should be above 9. Hollow fibre membranes are usually employed, composed of primarily polypropylene, polyvinylidene fluoride, or polytetrafluoroethylene. The stripping solution is normally sulphuric acid which reacts with ammonia to create ammonium sulphate. The acid is best circulated inside the lumen with any suitable velocity, and kept in excess concentration. In terms of operational parameters: feed fluid velocity is important in open loop configurations due to the effect upon ammonia residence time at the membrane surface; and, ammonia concentration did not notably impact the mass transfer coefficient which was ca. 1 × 10 -5 m/s until in excess of 2000 mg/L wherein the transport process diminished. The greatest quantity of ammonia was recovered in the initial membrane stages where the driving force is greatest. Bench and pilot plant studies concerned wastewater treatment plants, anaerobic digesters, manure management, industrial manufacturing, and animal rearing operations. It is recommended to focus upon challenges such as development of new membrane types customised for ammonia removal, a greater understanding of the process engineering and economics involved, consideration of the impact of osmotic distillation, integration of membrane contactors with other water treatment technologies and development of cleaning in place procedures.

© 2017, Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. Manure management is the primary source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from pig farming, which in turn accounts for 18% of the total global GHG emissions from the livestock industry. In this review, GHG emissions (N 2 O and CH 4 emissions in particular) from individual pig manure (PGM) management practices (European practises in particular) are systematically analyzed and discussed. These manure management practices include manure storage, land application, solid/liquid separation, anaerobic digestion, composting and aerobic wastewater treatment. The potential reduction in net GHG emissions by changing and optimising these techniques is assessed. This review also identifies key research gaps in the literature including the effect of straw covering of liquid PGM storages, the effect of solid/liquid separation, and the effect of dry anaerobic digestion on net GHG emissions from PGM management. In addition to identifying these research gaps, several recommendations including the need to standardize units used to report GHG emissions, to account for indirect N 2 O emissions, and to include a broader research scope by conducting detailed life cycle assessment are also discussed. Overall, anaerobic digestion and compositing to liquid and solid fractions are best PGM management practices with respect to their high GHG mitigation potential. [Figure not available: see fulltext.].

© 2017 A computer model was developed to simulate the performance of an integrated solar thermal driven direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) system for seawater desalination using recorded weather data. The results highlight the importance of simulating the DCMD process together with the energy source. Indeed, when considered in isolation from the thermal energy source, increasing water cross flow velocities in the feed and distillate channels results in an increase in water flux and thermal efficiency of the DCMD module. By contrast, when coupling the DCMD module with the solar thermal collector, increasing water cross flow velocities reduces both the process water flux and thermal efficiency. This is because of the limited supply of solar thermal at any given time, and hence the feed temperature decreases when cross flow velocities increase. Thus, any benefits in the reduction of temperature polarisation due to increasing cross flow velocities are overwhelmed by the effects of feed temperature decrease on water flux and thermal efficiency. Results from our simulation also demonstrate the viability of the solar thermal driven DCMD process for small-scale seawater desalination applications. Distillate production is dependent on the availability of solar radiation during the day; nevertheless, a small system with a 7.2 m2 spiral-wound DCMD module and a 22.6 m2 flat plate solar thermal collector can produce over 140 kg of distillate each day under real weather conditions. This is equivalent to a daily distillate production rate of 19.7 kg per m2 of membrane or 6.3 kg per m2 of solar thermal collector.

© 2016 Elsevier B.V. Innovative approaches to prevent bacterial attachment and biofilm growth on membranes are critically needed to avoid decreasing membrane performance due to biofouling. In this study, we propose the fabrication of anti-biofouling thin-film composite membranes functionalized with graphene oxide–silver nanocomposites. In our membrane modification strategy, carboxyl groups on the graphene oxide–silver nanosheets are covalently bonded to carboxyl groups on the surface of thin-film composite membranes via a crosslinking reaction. Further characterization, such as scanning electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy, revealed the immobilization of graphene oxide–silver nanocomposites on the membrane surface. Graphene oxide–silver modified membranes exhibited an 80% inactivation rate against attached Pseudomonas aeruginosa cells. In addition to a static antimicrobial assay, our study also provided insights on the anti-biofouling property of forward osmosis membranes during dynamic operation in a cross-flow test cell. Functionalization with graphene oxide–silver nanocomposites resulted in a promising anti-biofouling property without sacrificing the membrane intrinsic transport properties. Our results demonstrated that the use of graphene oxide–silver nanocomposites is a feasible and attractive approach for the development of anti-biofouling thin-film composite membranes.

The impact of fouling substances on the rejection of four N-nitrosamines by a reverse osmosis (RO) membrane was evaluated by characterizing individual organic fractions in a secondary wastewater effluent and deploying a novel high-performance liquid chromatography-photochemical reaction-chemiluminescence (HPLC-PR-CL) analytical technique. The HPLC-PR-CL analytical technique allowed for a systematic examination of the correlation between the fouling level and the permeation of N-nitrosamines in the secondary wastewater effluent and synthetic wastewaters through an RO membrane. Membrane fouling caused by the secondary wastewater effluent led to a notable decrease in the permeation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) while a smaller but nevertheless discernible decrease in the permeation of N-nitrosomethylethylamine (NMEA), N-nitrosopyrrolidine (NPYR) and N-nitrosomorpholine (NMOR) was also observed. Fluorescence spectrometry analysis revealed that major foulants in the secondary wastewater effluent were humic and fulvic acid-like substances. Analysis using the size exclusion chromatography technique also identified polysaccharides and proteins as additional fouling substances. Thus, further examination was conducted using solutions containing model foulants (i.e., sodium alginate, bovine serum albumin, humic acid and two fulvic acids). Similar to the secondary wastewater effluent, membrane fouling with fulvic acid solutions resulted in a decrease in N-nitrosamine permeation. In contrast, membrane fouling with the other model foulants resulted in a negligible impact on N-nitrosamine permeation. Overall, these results suggest that the impact of fouling on the permeation of N-nitrosamines by RO is governed by specific small organic fractions (e.g. fulvic acid-like organics) in the secondary wastewater effluent.

© 2017 Elsevier B.V. Membrane fouling during the treatment of produced water containing oil emulsions remains a major technical challenge for the oil and gas industry. Here, we demonstrate the preparation and performance of a fouling resistant hollow fiber membrane using a synthetic saline oil-in-water emulsion. The membrane was prepared by coating commercial polyethersulfone (PES) hollow fibers with a layer of sulfonated polyether ether ketone (SPEEK). The SPEEK coated membrane was significantly more oleophobic than the support PES membrane, possibly due to a non-porous surface, higher hydrophilicity, and more negatively charged SPEEK surface. The SPEEK coated membrane could achieve complete oil rejection without any observable membrane fouling and considerably higher salt, turbidity, and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) rejection than the support PES membrane. An initial increase in water flux was observed with the SPEEK coated membrane. The flux increase observed here could be attributed to the incorporation of SDS molecules into SPEEK polymeric network and subsequent electrostatic interaction amongst charged functional groups leading to conformational changes of the SPEEK layer. Dynamic adsorption and desorption experiments illustrated the interaction between SDS and SPEEK. A strong correlation between the amount of SDS entrapped in the SPEEK polymeric network and water flux was observed. Results from this study illustrated the potential of SPEEK coated membrane as a major breakthrough for oil recovery and wastewater reuse in the oil and gas industry.

© 2017 Elsevier B.V. The fertilizer-drawn forward osmosis (FDFO) was investigated for treating coal seam gas (CSG) produced water to generate nutrient rich solution for irrigation. Its performance was evaluated and compared with reverse osmosis (RO) in terms of specific energy consumption (SEC) and nutrient concentrations in the final product water. The RO-FDFO hybrid process was developed to further improve FDFO. The results showed that FDFO has the lowest SEC followed by the RO-FDFO and RO processes. The final nutrient concentration simulation demonstrated that the RO-FDFO hybrid process has lower final concentration, higher maximum recovery and lower nutrient loss th an the stand alone FDFO process. Therefore, it was suggested that the RO-FDFO is the most effective treatment option for CSG produced water as well as favourable nutrient supply. Lastly, membrane fouling mechanism was examined in CSG RO brine treatment by FDFO, and the strategies for controlling fouling were critically evaluated. KNO 3 exhibited the highest flux decline corresponding to the highest reverse salt flux, while the most severe membrane scaling was observed with calcium nitrate, primarily due to the reverse transport of calcium ions. To control membrane fouling in FDFO process, both physical flushing and chemical cleaning were examined. Membrane cleaning with citric acid of 5% resulted in a complete flux recovery.

This study systematically compares the performance of osmotic membrane bioreactor - reverse osmosis (OMBR-RO) and conventional membrane bioreactor - reverse osmosis (MBR-RO) for advanced wastewater treatment and water reuse. Both systems achieved effective removal of bulk organic matter and nutrients, and almost complete removal of all 31 trace organic contaminants investigated. They both could produce high quality water suitable for recycling applications. During OMBR-RO operation, salinity build-up in the bioreactor reduced the water flux and negatively impacted the system biological treatment by altering biomass characteristics and microbial community structure. In addition, the elevated salinity also increased soluble microbial products and extracellular polymeric substances in the mixed liquor, which induced fouling of the forward osmosis (FO) membrane. Nevertheless, microbial analysis indicated that salinity stress resulted in the development of halotolerant bacteria, consequently sustaining biodegradation in the OMBR system. By contrast, biological performance was relatively stable throughout conventional MBR-RO operation. Compared to conventional MBR-RO, the FO process effectively prevented foulants from permeating into the draw solution, thereby significantly reducing fouling of the downstream RO membrane in OMBR-RO operation. Accumulation of organic matter, including humic- and protein-like substances, as well as inorganic salts in the MBR effluent resulted in severe RO membrane fouling in conventional MBR-RO operation.

© 2017 Wastewater treatment plants in many countries use anaerobic digesters for biosolids management and biogas generation. Opportunities exist to utilise the spare capacity of these digesters to co-digest food waste and sludge for energy recovery and a range of other economic and environmental benefits. This paper provides a critical perspective for full-scale implementation of co-digestion of food waste and wastewater sludge. Data compiled from full-scale facilities and the peer-reviewed literature revealed several key bottlenecks hindering full-scale implementation of co-digestion. Indeed, co-digestion applications remain concentrated mostly in countries or regions with favourable energy and waste management policies. Not all environmental benefits from waste diversion and resource recovery can be readily monetarised into revenue to support co-digestion projects. Our field surveys also revealed the important issue of inert impurities in food waste with significant implication to the planning, design, and operation of food waste processing and co-digestion plants. Other pertinent issues include regulatory uncertainty regarding gate fee, the lack of viable options for biogas utilisation, food waste collection and processing, impacts of co-digestion on biosolids reuse and downstream biogas utilisation, and lack of design and operation experience. Effort to address these bottlenecks and promote co-digestion requires a multi-disciplinary approach.

© 2017 Acid phase digestion pretreatment resulted in an increase in biogas production and volatile solids (VS) removal at the West Camden plant which was fed with only waste activated sludge. Without the acid phase digesters, the specific methane yield of waste activated sludge (WAS) was 190 L/kgVS added , whereas a specific methane yield of WAS of 231 L/kg VS added was observed from sludge sampled from the acid phase digester. The specific methane yield obtained from BioWin ® simulation was 331 L/kgVS added and was slightly higher than that from BMP assessment (231 L/kgVS added ). In addition, the overall VS removal values obtained from BioWin ® simulation (44%) and biomethane potential (BMP) evaluation (49%) were close to the actual VS removal value (45%) achieved by the plant. The consistency between full scale evaluation data, BioWin ® simulation, and BMP assessment suggests that BioWin ® simulation and BMP study can be used to guide future design and optimisation of acid phase digestion pretreatment to intensify anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge.

� 2017 Elsevier B.V. The ability of biopolymers (bovine serum albumin, lysozyme, chitosan, gellan gum and DNA) to facilitate formation of aqueous dispersions of MWNTs was investigated using a combination of absorption spectrophotometry and optical microscopy. Subsequently, self-supporting carbon nanotube membranes, known as buckypapers (BPs), were prepared by vacuum filtration of the dispersions. Microanalytical data obtained from the BPs confirmed the retention of biopolymers within their structures. Tensile test measurements performed on the BPs showed that incorporation of the biopolymers resulted in significant improvements in mechanical properties, compared to analogous BPs containing MWNTs and the low molecular mass dispersant Triton X-100. For example, MWNT/CHT BPs (CHT=chitosan) exhibited values for tensile strength, ductility, Young's modulus and toughness of 28�2�MPa, 5.3�2.7%, 0.9�0.3�GPa and 1.7�0.3�J g −1 , respectively. Each of these values are significantly greater than those obtained for MWNT/Trix BPs, prepared using a low molecular weight dispersant (6�3�MPa, 1.3�0.2%, 0.6�0.3�GPa and 0.10�0.06�J g −1 , respectively). This significant improvement in mechanical properties is attributed to the ability of the long biopolymer molecules to act as flexible bridges between the short CNTs. All BPs possessed hydrophilic surfaces, with contact angles ranging from 29�2� to 57�5�. Nitrogen gas porosimetry showed that the BPs have highly porous internal structures, while scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed their surface morphologies have numerous pore openings. The permeability of the BPs towards water, inorganic salts, and dissolved trace organic contaminants (TrOCs), such as pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and pesticides, was investigated through filtration experiments. Of the twelve TrOCs investigated in this study, nine were rejected by more than 95% by BPs composed of MWNTs and chitosan. The latter BPs...

This paper critically reviews the multidimensional benefits of ozonation in wastewater treatment plants. These benefits include sludge reduction, removal of emerging trace organic contaminants (TrOC) from wastewater and sludge, and resource recovery from sludge. Literature shows that ozonation leads to sludge solubilisation, reducing overall biomass yield. Sludge solubilisation is primarily influenced by ozone dosage, which, in turn, depends on the fraction of ozonated sludge, ozone concentration, and sludge concentration. Additionally, sludge ozonation facilitates the removal of TrOCs from wastewater. On the other hand, by inducing cell lysis, ozonation increases the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and nutrient concentration of the sludge supernatant, which deteriorates effluent quality. This issue can be resolved by implementing resource recovery. Thus far, successful retrieval of phosphorous from ozonated sludge supernatant has been performed. The recovery of phosphorous and other resources from sludge could help offset the operation cost of ozonation, and give greater incentive for wastewater treatment plants to adapt this approach.

This study investigated the fate of trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) in an oxic-settling-anoxic (OSA) process consisting of a sequencing batch reactor (SBR) with external aerobic/anoxic and anoxic reactors. OSA did not negatively affect TrOC removal of the SBR. Generally, low TrOC removal was observed under anoxic and low substrate conditions, implicating the role of co-metabolism in TrOC biodegradation. Several TrOCs that were recalcitrant in the SBR (e.g., benzotriazole) were biodegraded in the external aerobic/anoxic reactor. Some hydrophobic TrOCs (e.g., triclosan) were desorbed in the anoxic reactor possibly due to loss of sorption sites through volatile solids destruction. In OSA, the sludge was discharged from the aerobic/anoxic reactor which contained lower concentration of TrOCs (e.g., triclosan and triclocarban) than that of the control aerobic digester, suggesting that OSA can also help to reduce TrOC concentration in residual biosolids.

© 2017 Elsevier B.V. The oxic-settling-anoxic (OSA) process, which involves an aerobic tank attached to oxygen- and substrate-deficient external anoxic reactors, minimizes sludge production in biological wastewater treatment. In this study, the microbial community structure of OSA was determined. Principal coordinate analysis showed that among the three operational factors, i.e., (i) redox condition, (ii) external reactor sludge retention time (SRT ext ), and (iii) sludge interchange between aerobic and anoxic reactors, redox condition had the greatest impact on microbial diversity. Generally, reactors with lower oxidation-reduction potential had higher microbial diversity. The main aerobic sequencing batch reactor of OSA (SBR OSA ) that interchanged sludge with an external anoxic reactor had greater microbial diversity than SBR control which did not have sludge interchange. SBR OSA sustained high abundance of the slow-growing nitrifying bacteria (e.g., Nitrospirales and Nitrosomondales) and consequently exhibited reduced sludge yield. Specific groups of bacteria facilitated sludge autolysis in the external reactors. Hydrolyzing (e.g., Bacteroidetes and Chloroflexi) and fermentative (e.g., Firmicutes) bacteria, which can break down cellular matter, p roliferated in both the external aerobic/anoxic and anoxic reactors. Sludge autolysis in the anoxic reactor was enhanced with the increase of predatory bacteria (e.g., order Myxobacteriales and genus Bdellovibrio) that can contribute to biomass decay. Furthermore, β- and γ-Proteobacteria were identified as the bacterial phyla that primarily underwent decay in the external reactors.

© 2017 The Royal Society of Chemistry. Chinese salt-lake brine is mainly of the magnesium sulfate subtype with a high Mg/Li ratio. Mining lithium from Chinese salt-lake brine has been a decades-long technical challenge. The pros and cons of various technologies are briefly discussed. Chemical extraction has been the most important technology for the recovery of lithium from Chinese salt-lake brine with a high Mg/Li ratio. Several other innovative technologies, including lithium ion sieves, membrane separation, and electro-electrodialysis, have also emerged as potential options.

© 2017 Elsevier B.V. The effectiveness of hypochlorite cleaning for fouling mitigation of a prototype chlorine-resistant nanofiltration (NF) membrane was assessed for direct filtration of a secondary treated effluent. The chlorine resistance and separation performance of the prototype NF membrane were also compared to commercial NF and reverse osmosis membranes. The prototype chlorine resistant NF membrane did not show any changes in permeability and conductivity rejection after exposing a NaOCl solution for up to 5 × 10 4  ppm-h. By contrast, a considerable deterioration in rejection was observed for the other two commercial membranes. Direct filtration of a secondary treated effluent by the prototype NF membrane resulted in a progressive permeability reduction by up to 25% after 10 h of filtration. The membrane permeability was fully restored by hypochlorite cleaning with a 2000 ppm NaOCl solution for 1 h. Effective permeability recovery by hypochlorite cleaning was demonstrated with multiple hypochlorite cleaning cycles. Membrane fouling and hypochlorite cleaning were also simulated using solutions containing a model foulant (sodium alginate, humic acids or bovine serum albumin). Among them, an insufficient permeability recovery was observed for membrane fouling caused by humic acids. Further research is recommended to develop an improved hypochlorite cleaning protocol to control various membrane fouling.

© 2017 Elsevier B.V. This study aims to elucidate the separation of phenol by reverse osmosis (RO) and forward osmosis (FO) modes and propose strategies to enhance phenol rejection by these two processes. The results show that phenol rejection was strongly influenced by water flux, membrane materials, membrane structure, modes of operation, and feed solution chemistry (i.e. pH). The relationship between phenol rejection and water flux was demonstrated by the irreversible thermodynamic model which could accurately simulate phenol rejection as a function of water flux. At pH 7, phenol rejection by cellulose acetate (CTA) membranes was negligible while the thin film composite (TFC) polyamide (PA) membranes exhibited much higher phenol rejection. Through a systematic static adsorption experiment, results in this study show that phenol adsorption to CTA material was about 20 times higher than that to PA material. Thus, the observed higher phenol rejection by TFC PA compared to CTA membranes was attributed to the significantly higher affinity of phenol toward CTA and the sorption diffusion transport mechanism of phenol through the membrane. In particular, a TFC PA membrane specific for FO operation was prepared in this study. In FO mode, the tailor-made TFC PA membrane showed a slightly higher phenol rejection and a much higher water permeability compared to the commercial membrane. At the same water flux and solution pH, phenol rejection in FO mode was consistently higher than in RO mode. This observation could possibly be attributed to the reverse diffusion of draw solutes in the FO mode which hinders the forward diffusion of phenol through the membrane. A significant increase in phenol rejection was achieved by increasing the feed pH above the dissociation constant of the compound.

© 2016 Anaerobic mono-digestion and co-digestion of primary sludge and two organic wastes (namely food waste or paper pulp reject) were evaluated by biomethane potential assessment and kinetics modelling to elucidate the synergistic effect. The specific methane yields were 159, 652 and 157 mL/g VS added during mono-digestion of primary sludge, food waste and paper pulp reject, respectively. Co-digestion of primary sludge with either food waste or paper pulp reject resulted in much higher specific methane yields of 799 and 368 mL/g VS, respectively. pH and intermediate inhibitions (e.g. volatile fatty acids and ammonium-N) were not observed. The synergistic effect was also confirmed by examining the VS and COD removals. COD balance also identified and validated the enhanced specific methane yields from both primary sludge and organic waste (i.e. additional 32 and 19% of COD was converted to biogas during co-digestion of primary sludge with food waste or paper pulp reject, respectively). The apparent first order rate constant derived from kinetics modelling increased from 0.18 to 0.63 d −1 during mono-digestion of paper pulp reject and co-digestion of primary sludge with paper pulp reject, which can be attributed to the initial high soluble biodegradable fraction in primary sludge.

© 2017 Results from this study reveal a notable relationship between the synergistic/antagonistic performance of sewage sludge – food waste anaerobic co-digestion (AcoD) and organic loading. At the same sewage sludge content, biomethane potential assays show an increasing specific methane yield as the content of food waste increased to the optimum organic loading of 15 kg VS/m 3 . Under these conditions, the specific methane yields experimentally measured in this study were considerably higher than those calculated by adding the specific methane individual co-substrates during mono-digestion. On the other hand, at above the optimum organic loading value, the antagonistic effect (i.e. lower specific methane yield compared to mono-digestion) was observed. The relationship between synergistic performance of AcoD and organic loading was also evidenced in the removal of volatile solids as well as chemical oxygen demand. Further analysis of the intermediate products show that methanogenesis was the rate limiting step during AcoD at a high organic loading value. As the organic loading increased, the digestion lag phase increased and the hydrolysis rate decreased.

© 2017 This study examined the effects of thermal pre-treatment and recuperative thickening on anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge on biogas production and removal of trace organic contaminants (TrOCs). Thermal pre-treatment and recuperative thickening resulted in approximately 15% increase in biogas production. However, the effects of thermal pretreatement and recuperative thickening on anaerobic digestion performance in respect to the removal of TrOCs were less obvious and varied widely depending on the molecular properties of each compound. Of the 40 TrOCs monitored in this study, 16 TrOCs were detected in all primary sludge samples. Removal from the aqueous phase was negligible for most of these 16 TrOCs. Caffeine and paracetamol were the only two TrOCs with a high removal from the aqueous phase. In comparison to the aqueous phase, TrOC removal from the solid phase was considerably higher. Through a mass balance calculation, it was shown that thermal pre-treatment or a combination of thermal pre-treatment and recuperative thickening could enhance the biodegradation of five persistent TrOCs, namely TCEP, verapamil, clozapine, triclosan, and triclocarban by 17–50%.

The aim of this work was to study the fate of trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) in sewage sludge during recuperative thickening anaerobic digestion. Sludge shearing at 3142s-1 for 5minutes improved biogas production. By contrast, shearing at ≥6283s-1 for 5minutes caused a notable reduction in biogas production and the removal of volatile solids. Results reported here showed the prevalent occurrence of 17 TrOCs in sewage sludge and highlights the importance of assessing TrOC removal via mass balance calculation by taking into account partitioning between the aqueous and solid phase as well as biodegradation. Hydrophilic and readily-biodegradable TrOCs (caffeine, trimethoprim, and paracetamol) were well removed and were not affected by shearing. TrOCs such as carbamazepine, gemfibrozil, and diuron showed biodegradation only at high shearing. It is possible that shearing can facilitate the circulation of TrOCs between aqueous and solid phases, thus, enhancing the biodegradation of some TrOCs.

Recuperative thickening can intensify anaerobic digestion to produce more biogas and potentially reduce biosolids odour. This study elucidates the effects of sludge shearing during the thickening process on the microbial community structure and its effect on biogas production. Medium shearing resulted in approximately 15% increase in biogas production. By contrast, excessive or high shearing led to a marked decrease in biogas production, possibly due to sludge disintegration and cell lysis. Microbial analysis using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing showed that medium shearing increased the evenness and diversity of the microbial community in the anaerobic digester, which is consistent with the observed improved biogas production. By contrast, microbial diversity decreased under either excessive shearing or high shearing condition. In good agreement with the observed decrease in biogas production, the abundance of Bacteroidales and Syntrophobaterales (which are responsible for hydrolysis and acetogenesis) decreased due to high shearing during recuperative thickening.

© 2017 Elsevier B.V. This study compared the performance of the asymmetric cellulose triacetate (CTA) and polyamide thin film composite (TFC) forward osmosis (FO) membranes in an osmotic membrane bioreactor (OMBR). A reverse osmosis (RO) system was integrated with OMBR to regenerate the draw solution and produce clean water. Results show that the TFC membrane exhibited a higher initial water flux but more dramatic flux decline compared to the CTA membrane when they were used for OMBR. The CTA and TFC membranes also resulted in discernible difference in salinity build-up in the bioreactor and thus biomass characteristics during OMBR operation. All 30 trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) selected in this study were effectively removed by the OMBR-RO hybrid system regardless of the FO membrane type. Compared to the CTA membrane, the TFC membrane contributed more significantly toward the removal of hydrophilic and biologically persistent compounds and thus reduced their accumulation in the draw solution during OMBR-RO operation. In addition, CTA and TFC FO membranes also resulted in considerable differences in TrOC residuals in the sludge during OMBR operation.

This study aimed to develop a practical semi-empirical mathematical model of membrane fouling that accounts for cake formation on the membrane and its pore blocking as the major processes of membrane fouling. In the developed model, the concentration of mixed liquor suspended solid is used as a lumped parameter to describe the formation of cake layer including the biofilm. The new model considers the combined effect of aeration and backwash on the foulants' detachment from the membrane. New exponential coefficients are also included in the model to describe the exponential increase of transmembrane pressure that typically occurs after the initial stage of an MBR operation. The model was validated using experimental data obtained from a lab-scale aerobic sponge-submerged membrane bioreactor (MBR), and the simulation of the model agreed well with the experimental findings.

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland. The term trace organic contaminant (TrOC) refers to a diverse and expanding array of natural as well as anthropogenic substances including industrial chemicals, chemicals used in households, compounds and their metabolites excreted by people and by-products formed during wastewater and drinking-water treatment processes. Activated sludge-based processes (e.g. membrane bioreactor) are environmentally friendly approaches to wastewater treatment. However, conventional biological treatment alone may not be effective for all TrOCs that are known to occur in municipal and industrial wastewater. The low removal efficiency of biologically persistent and hydrophilic TrOCs necessitates the integration of MBR with other membrane-based and physicochemical processes to ensure adequate removal of TrOCs. Because MBRs can produce effluent with low turbidity and bulk organic content, significant synergy can be realised when it is integrated with other advanced treatment processes. In addition, given the small physical footprint of the MBR process, it is possible to deploy these integrated systems for decentralised water recycling applications. This chapter provides a brief overview of the integration of advanced treatment processes including activated carbon adsorption, advanced oxidation processes and high retention membranes (e.g. nanofiltration and reverse osmosis) with MBR for TrOC removal.

© 2016 Balaban Desalination Publications. All rights reserved. This study aims to characterize anaerobically digested sludge (ADS) and correlate the sludge characteristics in terms of soluble organic compounds with polymer demand (PD) during sludge conditioning. The PD required to achieve maximum dewatering of the ADS studied is in the range of 8–10 kg polymer/dry ton. The commonly used capillary suction time parameter to evaluate the solid–liquid separation ability was not a reliable indicator for assessing dewatering. Instead, in this study, a modified centrifugal technique proposed by Higgins (Higgins MCT) was used to assess the maximum achievable dry solids content of the biosolids cake. The Higgins MCT is readily obtained using a bench-scale centrifuge equipped with a modified centrifuge bucket. Using the Higgins MCT, the maximum dry solids contents obtained from conditioned ADS was 30 wt%. These values were comparable to the dry solids content obtained from the same sludge at full-scale level. Our results suggest Higgins MCT is suitable for assessing the final dry solids content and simulating the dewatering process.

A mathematical model was developed based on the irreversible thermodynamic principle and hydrodynamic calculation to predict the rejection of N-nitrosamines by spiral-wound reverse osmosis (RO) membrane systems. The developed model is able to accurately describe the rejection of N-nitrosamines under a range of permeate flux and system recovery conditions. The modelled N-nitrosamine rejections were in good agreement with values obtained experimentally using a pilot-scale RO filtration system. Simulation from the model revealed that an increase in permeate flux from 10 to 30L/m2h led to an increase in the rejection of low molecular weight N-nitrosamines such as N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) (from 31% to 54%), which was validated by experimental results. The modelling results also revealed that an increase in recovery caused a decrease in the rejection of these N-nitrosamines, which is consistent with the experimental results. Further modelling investigations suggested that NDMA rejection by a spiral-wound system can drop from 49% to 35% when the overall recovery increased from 10% to 50%. The model developed from this study can be a useful tool for water utilities and regulators for system design and evaluating the removal of N-nitrosamine by RO membranes. © 2013.

This study assessed the adsorption capacity of the agro-waste 'cabbage' as a biosorbent in single, binary, ternary and quaternary sorption systems with Cu(II), Pb(II), Zn(II) and Cd(II) ions. Dried and ground powder of cabbage waste (CW) was used for the sorption of metals ions. Carboxylic, hydroxyl, and amine groups in cabbage waste were found to be the key functional groups for metal sorption. The adsorption isotherms obtained could be well fitted to both the mono- and multi-metal models. In the competitive adsorption systems, cabbage waste adsorbed larger amount of Pb(II) than the other three metals. However, the presence of the competing ions suppressed the sorption of the target metal ions. Except the case of binary system of Cd(II)-Zn(II) and Cd(II)-Cu(II), there was a linear inverse dependency between the sorption capacities and number of different types of competitive metal ions.

Extensive research has focussed on the development of novel high retention membrane bioreactor (HRMBR) systems for wastewater reclamation in recent years. HR-MBR integrates high rejection membrane separation with conventional biological treatment in a single step. High rejection membrane separation processes currently used in HR-MBR applications include nanofiltration, forward osmosis, and membrane distillation. In these HR-MBR systems, organic contaminants can be effectively retained, prolonging their retention time in the bioreactor and thus enhancing their biodegradation. Therefore, HR-MBR can offer a reliable and elegant solution to produce high quality effluent. However, there are several technological challenges associated with the development of HR-MBR, including salinity build-up, low permeate flux, and membrane degradation. This paper provides a critical review on these challenges and potential opportunities of HR-MBR for wastewater treatment and water reclamation, and aims to guide and inform future research on HR-MBR for fast commercialisation of this innovative technology.

Micropollutants are emerging as a new challenge to the scientific community. This review provides a summary of the recent occurrence of micropollutants in the aquatic environment including sewage, surface water, groundwater and drinking water. The discharge of treated effluent from WWTPs is a major pathway for the introduction of micropollutants to surface water. WWTPs act as primary barriers against the spread of micropollutants. WWTP removal efficiency of the selected micropollutants in 14 countries/regions depicts compound-specific variation in removal, ranging from 12.5 to 100%. Advanced treatment processes, such as activated carbon adsorption, advanced oxidation processes, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, and membrane bioreactors can achieve higher and more consistent micropollutant removal. However, regardless of what technology is employed, the removal of micropollutants depends on physico-chemical properties of micropollutants and treatment conditions. The evaluation of micropollutant removal from municipal wastewater should cover a series of aspects from sources to end uses. After the release of micropollutants, a better understanding and modeling of their fate in surface water is essential for effectively predicting their impacts on the receiving environment.

This study investigated the removal of micropollutants using polyurethane sponge as attached-growth carrier. Batch experiments demonstrated that micropollutants could adsorb to non-acclimatized sponge cubes to varying extents. Acclimatized sponge showed significantly enhanced removal of some less hydrophobic compounds (log D < 2.5), such as ibuprofen, acetaminophen, naproxen, and estriol, as compared with non-acclimatized sponge. The results for bench-scale sponge-based moving bed bioreactor (MBBR) system elucidated compound-specific variation in removal, ranging from 25.9% (carbamazepine) to 96.8% (ß-Estradiol 17-acetate) on average. In the MBBR system, biodegradation served as a major removal pathway for most compounds. However, sorption to sludge phase was also a notable removal mechanism of some persistent micropollutants. Particularly, carbamazepine, ketoprofen and pentachlorophenol were found at high concentrations (7.87, 6.05 and 5.55 µg/g, respectively) on suspended biosolids. As a whole, the effectiveness of MBBR for micropollutant removal was comparable with those of activated sludge processes and MBRs.

The removal of four recalcitrant trace organic contaminants (TrOCs), namely carbamazepine, diclofenac, sulfamethoxazole and atrazine by laccase in an enzymatic membrane reactor (EMR) was studied. Laccases are not effective for degrading non-phenolic compounds; nevertheless, 2255% removal of these four TrOCs was achieved by the laccase EMR. Addition of the redox-mediator syringaldehyde (SA) to the EMR resulted in a notable dose-dependent improvement (1545%) of TrOC removal affected by inherent TrOC properties and loading rates. However, SA addition resulted in a concomitant increase in the toxicity of the treated effluent. A further 1425% improvement in aqueous phase removal of the TrOCs was consistently observed following a one-off dosing of 3 g/L granular activated carbon (GAC). Mass balance analysis reveals that this improvement was not due solely to adsorption but also enhanced biodegradation. GAC addition also reduced membrane fouling and the SA-induced toxicity of the effluent.

Alternate cycling of sludge in aerobic, anoxic, and anaerobic regimes is a promising strategy that can reduce the sludge yield of conventional activated sludge (CAS) by up to 50% with potentially lower capital and operating cost than physical- and/or chemical-based sludge minimisation techniques. The mechanisms responsible for reducing sludge yield include alterations to cellular metabolism and feeding behaviour (metabolic uncoupling, feasting/fasting, and endogenous decay), biological floc destruction, and predation on bacteria by higher organisms. Though discrepancies across various studies are recognisable, it is apparent that sludge retention time, oxygen-reduction potential of the anaerobic tank, temperature, sludge return ratio and loading mode are relevant to sludge minimisation by sludge cycling approaches. The impact of sludge minimisation on CAS operation (e.g., organics and nutrient removal efficiency and sludge settleability) is highlighted, and key areas requiring further research are also identified.

The removal of trace organic compounds (TrOCs) by a novel membrane distillationthermophilic bioreactor (MDBR) system was examined. Salinity build-up and the thermophilic conditions to some extent adversely impacted the performance of the bioreactor, particularly the removal of total nitrogen and recalcitrant TrOCs. While most TrOCs were well removed by the thermophilic bioreactor, compounds containing electron withdrawing functional groups in their molecular structure were recalcitrant to biological treatment and their removal efficiency by the thermophilic bioreactor was low (053%). However, the overall performance of the novel MDBR system with respect to the removal of total organic carbon, total nitrogen, and TrOCs was high and was not significantly affected by the conditions of the bioreactor. All TrOCs investigated here were highly removed (>95%) by the MDBR system. Biodegradation, sludge adsorption, and rejection by MD contribute to the removal of TrOCs by MDBR treatment.

The removal efficiency of 22 selected trace organic contaminants by sequential application of granular activated carbon (GAC) and simultaneous application of powdered activated carbon (PAC) with membrane bioreactor (MBR) was compared in this study. Both sequential application of GAC following MBR treatment (MBRâGAC) and simultaneous application of PAC within MBR (PACâMBR) achieved improved removal (over 95%) of seven hydrophilic and biologically persistent compounds, which were less efficiently removed by MBR-only treatment (negligible to 70%). However, gradual breakthrough of these compounds occurred over an extended operation period. Charged compounds, particularly, fenoprop and diclofenac, demonstrated the fastest breakthrough (complete and 50â70%, in MBRâGAC and PACâMBR, respectively). Based on a simple comparison from the long-term performance stability and activated carbon usage points of view, PACâMBR appears to be a better option than MBRâGAC treatment.

This study examined the relationship between molecular properties and the fate of trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) in the aqueous and solid phases during wastewater treatment by MBR. A set of 29 TrOCs was selected to represent pharmaceuticals, steroid hormones, phytoestrogens, UV-filters and pesticides that occur ubiquitously in municipal wastewater. Both adsorption and biodegradation/transformation were found responsible for the removal of TrOCs by MBR treatment. A connection between biodegradation and molecular structure could be observed while adsorption was the dominant removal mechanism for the hydrophobic (logD > 3.2) compounds. Highly hydrophobic (logD > 3.2) but readily biodegradable compounds did not accumulate in sludge. In contrast, recalcitrant compounds with a moderate hydrophobicity, such as carbamazepine, accumulated significantly in the solid phase. The results provide a framework to predict the removal and fate of TrOCs by MBR treatment.

A modified activated sludge process (ASP) for enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) needs to sustain stable performance for wastewater treatment to avoid eutrophication in the aquatic environment. Unfortunately, the overall efficiency of the EBPR in ASPs and membrane bioreactors (MBRs) is frequently hindered by different operational/system constraints. Moreover, although phosphorus removal data from several wastewater treatment systems are available, a comprehensive mathematical model of the process is still lacking. This paper presents a critical review that highlights the core issues of the biological phosphorus removal in ASPs and MBRs while discussing the inhibitory process requirements for other nutrients removal. This mini review also successfully provided an assessment of the available models for predicting phosphorus removal in both ASP and MBR systems. The advantages and limitations of the existing models were discussed together with the inclusion of few guidelines for their improvement.

The fate of chemical of concern is not yet fully understood during treatment of impaired waters. The aim of this paper is to assess the impact of different organic-based fouling layers on the removal of a large range of trace organics. Both model and real water samples (mixed with trace organic contaminants at environmental concentration of 2 g l.1) were used to simulate fouling in nanofiltration under controlled environment. The new and fouled membranes were systematically characterised for surface charge, hydrophobicity and roughness. It was observed that fouling generally reduced the membrane surface charge; however, the alterations of the membrane hydrophobicity and surface roughness were dependent on the foulants composition. The rejection of charged trace organics was observed to be improved due to the increased electrostatic repulsion by fouled membranes and the adsorption of the trace organic chemicals onto organic matters. On the other hand, the removal of nonionic compounds decreased when fouling occurred, due to the presence of cake enhanced concentration polarization. The fouling layer structure was found to play an important role in the rejection of the trace organic compounds. © 2011 Author(s).

Carbamazepine, which is an anti-epileptic drug, is ubiquitously present in municipal wastewater. Owing to its recalcitrant chemical structure, carbamazepine is not significantly removed during conventional biological treatment or even by membrane bioreactor (MBR). With the ultimate aim of providing insights into the strategies to enhance carbamazepine removal, the effect of key operational parameters, namely, loading rate (2–750 μg/L* d), pH (5–9), mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) concentration (1–15 g/L) and dissolved oxygen (DO) (<0.5–5 mg/L) on the removal of carabamazepine by MBR was systematically studied. Results obtained in this study revealed negligible influence of pH and of MLSS concentration (beyond 5 g/L) on the removal of carbamazepine. The removal rate, however, was significantly enhanced under a DO concentration of less than 0.5 mg/L, suggesting that an alternating anoxic-oxic environment in MBR would achieve high removal. Significantly enhanced (287 mg/g vs. 0.02 mg/g) adsorption of carbamazepine on powdered activated carbon (PAC) as compared to MBR sludge indicated that simultaneous PAC adsorption in MBR may achieve enhanced removal. © 2011 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

Parts cleaning has gradually replaced solvent based cleaning during the manufacturing of parts and in maintenance workshop as a much more sustainable and cost benefit technology. In this study, the performance of aqueous parts cleaning was evaluated using two industrial parts cleaning systems. One system was equipped with a microfilter and oil skimmer to prolong the cleaning solution lifetime and the other was a generic parts cleaning system, which was not equipped with any contaminant control devices. It appears that aqueous parts cleaning could offer a high degree of cleanliness suitable for most typical maintenance workshops. However, the cleaning equipment used was critical to successful aqueous cleaning. The use of a microfilter and oil skimmer can reduce the amount of residuals left on parts and significantly extend solution life. Copyright © 2011 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

An excel-based model was developed to evaluate economic and environmental benefits of the solar-powered compaction garbage bins in public areas in Australia. Input data were collected from Brisbane and Wollongong City councils, and Sydney Olympic Park. The results demonstrate that solar-powered compaction garbage bins would provide environmental benefits in all scenarios. However, results of the economic analysis of the three studied areas varied significantly. The unique situation of Sydney Olympic Park made implementation in that facility particularly appealing. A lower monthly rental cost is needed for the implementation of this novel waste management practice.

PVC/Aliquat 336 Polymer Inclusion Membranes (PIMs) synthesised in this study showed excellent extraction selectivity of Cd2+ over Cu 2+. This could be explained by examining the extraction mechanisms of metal cations involving Aliquat 336 and the speciation of such metals in a chloride matrix, which was used in the extraction experiments. There was a good correlation between the content of Aliquat 336 in the membrane and the extraction rate. In addition, results reported here also confirm that variation Molecular Weight (MW) of the base polymer PVC did not exert any discernible influence on the extraction performance of the membranes. © 2010 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

A comprehensive investigation of electrocoagulation using sacrificial titanium (Ti) electrodes in wastewater was carried out. The effects of specific process variables, such as initial pH, mixing, current density, initial organic loading, and ionic/ electrolyte strength were first optimized to produce recyclable Ti-based sludge. The sludge was incinerated at 600°C to produce functional TiO2 photocatalyst. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed that TiO2 produced at optimum electrocoagulation conditions was mostly anatase structure. The specific surface area of the synthesized TiO2 photocatalyst was higher than that of the commercially available and widely used Degussa P-25 TiO2. Furthermore, energy dispersive X-ray and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analyses showed that in additional to titanium and oxygen, this photocatalyst is also composed of carbon and phosphorus. These elements were mainly doped as a substitute site for the oxygen atom. Transmission electron microscopy images exhibited sharply edged nanorods, round nanoparticles, and nanotubes with nonuniform shapes showing some structural defects. Photodecomposition of gaseous acetaldehyde by this photocatalyst was also conducted under UV and visible light irradiation to study the photocatalytic properties of the doped TiO2 photocatalyst. While no photocatalytic activity was observed under visible light irradiation, this doped TiO2 photocatalyst exhibited high photocatalytic activity under UV light.

Acidic groundwater, generated from acid sulphate soil (ASS), is a major geo-environmental problem in Australia. Manipulation of groundwater through the use of weirs and gates in the nearby creeks and drains of ASS, which is being practised right now for preventing pyrite oxidation, is not effective in low land floodplains due to the risk of flooding. The application of a permeable reactive barrier (PRB) can be an alternative for remediation of acidic groundwater in such floodplains. Laboratory column experiments were carried out prior to installation of the PRB for examining the efficiency of the material. Results of these experiments have shown that recycled concrete could effectively neutralise the acidic water for longer periods with complete removal of aluminium (Al) and iron (Fe). Despite the reduction of the efficiency of the recycled concrete due to armouring by accumulated precipitates of Al and Fe, excellent performance was observed for an extended period under controlled laboratory condition. Following these results, a pilot PRB was installed in the Broughton Creek flood plains in southeast NSW to observe its performance under varying natural conditions of the field. The PRB has been maintaining near neutral pH with complete removal of Al and Fe from the groundwater of ASS matching with the results of column test. The promising performance of the pilot PRB for the last three years shows that PRB can be used as one of the cost effective and environmental friendly alternative to other recently utilised techniques in ASS.

There is a growing interest in utilising non-traditional water resources by means of water reclamation and water recycling for long term sustainability. Amongst the many treatment alternatives, membrane bioreactors (MBRs) have been seen as an effective technology capable of transforming various types of wastewater into high-quality effluent exceeding most discharge requirements and suitable for a variety of reuse applications. To date MBRs are largely restricted to centralised large scale applications, with the most common capacity of 200 ML per day or above. The aim of this paper is to review and discuss the potential and limitations of MBRs for small scale applications. Both technical and economic considerations will be delineated with respect to the future water outlook in Australia. Particular attention is also given to the impact of MBR technology on the removal of micropollutants that are of significant concern in water recycling. Copyright © 2007 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

Nanofiltration (NF) is an attractive option for the treatment of landfill leachate. However, membrane fouling can be a major obstacle in the implementation of this technology. In this study, bench-scale filtration experiments were carried out to study the fouling behaviour during the NF of a synthetic landfill leachate. The results indicate that calcium in combination with organic matter could play a major role in governing the fouling process. Membrane fouling depended on the calcium concentration in the feed solution. Moreover, the results also indicate a significant influence of membrane fouling on the retention of Bisphenol A (BPA). It was hypothesised that pore blocking and the presence of the fouling layer resulted in an enhanced sieving effect, which subsequently increased the retention of BPA. On the other hand, cake layer enhanced concentration polarisation could hinder BPA from back diffusing into the bulk solution, which would eventually result in a lower BPA retention. © 2007 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.Anaerobic digestion is a widely used and probably the most sustainable technique for biogas production and nutrient recovery from manure. This chapter describes the process of anaerobic digestion of manure and other cosubstrates with a specific focus on biogas and digestate utilization. Biogas purification is one of the most significant bottlenecks to fully realizing the range of biogas utilization for not just energy production but also other forms of beneficial usages. Thus, biogas purification techniques are discussed in detail in this chapter. Digestate from manure is an excellent biofertilizer and can be applied using the same equipment designed for liquid fertilizer. Previous studies corroborated in this chapter highlight the importance of quality control and digestate application practice particularly when manure is codigested with other cosubstrates or the digestate is used on a different farm.

Chapters in this volume review the most recent developments and perspectives at different environmental cleanup operation scales.

© 2016 American Society of Civil Engineers. This chapter discusses advanced technologies for the removal of emerging trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) from wastewater for reuse purposes. In particular, integrated membrane processes for TrOC removal are delineated. In the environment, TrOCs may be present as a mixture of various compounds and their transformation products. Mixtures of TrOCs may impose a more complicated effect when compared to that of a single compound. Water recycling is a pragmatic approach to mitigate or solve the problems of water supply. There is a growing interest in using nontraditional water resources by means of water reclamation and water recycling for long-term sustainability. This chapter explains the removal of TrOCs by existing and advanced treatment processes. Some of the processes include activated carbon adsorption, high-pressure membrane filtration, advanced oxidation processes, and enzymatic degradation. The biomass feature is an important factor for TrOC removal in membrane bioreactor (MBR).

© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. High-pressure membrane separation processes including reverse osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF) have been widely used for drinking water purification and water recycling as well as for the removal of trace organic contaminants (TrOCs). Rejection of TrOCs by NF/RO membranes is governed mainly by size exclusion, electrostatic repulsion and hydrophobic interaction. A detailed characterisation of the membrane and physicochemical properties of the TrOC is key to recognising the dominant mechanism. TrOC rejection by NF/RO membranes can also be influenced by fouling and subsequent chemical cleaning. It is, therefore, essential to understand the transport of TrOCs through NF/RO membranes in order to ensure adequate treatment and at the same time avoid over-engineering. In addition to NF/RO, TrOCs removal by several emerging membrane technologies, including forward osmosis, membrane distillation and membrane electrodialysis, is reviewed briefly.

© 2015 by the American Society of Civil Engineers. All Rights Reserved. This chapter reviews the current state of knowledge on the rejection of emerging trace organic chemicals by forward osmosis (FO) processes, beginning with a brief introduction to the occurrence of emerging trace organic chemicals in municipal wastewater effluent. Due to the frequent detection of emerging organic chemicals in secondary treated effluent, a multibarrier concept is widely utilized in the design of wastewater reclamation processes to ensure the quality of product water. The chapter outlines three major aspects to delineate how they affect rejection of trace organic chemicals; process parameters include properties of membrane and draw solution and operating conditions, membrane fouling, and FO-based hybrid processes. Potential benefits of the FO-based hybrid systems extend beyond better product water quality and energy and cost savings. The chapter ends with several concluding remarks that strengthen the potential of FO in effectively dealing with emerging trace organic chemicals.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013. All rights reserved. The potential fields of application of biocatalytic membrane reactors have widened considerably in recent years. Although biocatalytic membrane reactors, in general, are yet to achieve broad industrial application, in the not too far future they are expected to play a major role, not only for the production, transformation and valorization of raw materials but also for environmental remediations. This chapter comprehensively reviews the laboratory scale studies which demonstrate the potential of biocatalytic membrane reactors in wastewater treatment applications. Studies reported in the literature, however, serve as proof of concept only. Issues that need to be addressed in order to achieve scale-up of such systems have been discussed in this chapter.

Acidity generated from the oxidation of pyrite and other sulphidic compounds that exist at shallow depths in acid sulphate soils (ASS) presents a challenging environmental problem in coastal Australia. The generated acidic groundwater can adversely impact coastal ecosystems, aquaculture and agriculture. Groundwater manipulation using weirs and modified floodgates in creeks and flood mitigation drains in ASS-affected farmland, which has been practiced for over a decade for preventing pyrite oxidation, is not effective in low-lying floodplains due to the high risk of flooding. In this paper, the authors present an overview of their experience in coastal Australia, a critical evaluation of currently practiced geo-environmental remediation methods as well as a demonstration of a pilot permeable reactive barrier (PRB) to control acidic groundwater pollution. The selection of recycled concrete, a commonly available alkaline waste material, and the systematic investigation of its longevity are highlighted through a series of batch and column experiments. In addition, the improvement of the groundwater quality by a pilot PRB using recycled concrete in ASS terrain within the Shoalhaven region of NSW, Australia will be elucidated based on field data collected over the last 3.5 years. © ASCE 2011.

Deep drainage technique utilised for flood mitigation in low-land coastal areas of Australia during the late 1960s has resulted in the generation of sulphuric acid in soil by the oxidation of pyritic materials. Further degradation of the subsurface environment with widespread contamination of the underlying soil and groundwater presents a major and challenging environmental issue in acid sulphate soil (ASS) terrains. Although several ASS remediation techniques recently implemented in the floodplain of Southeast Australia including operation of gates, tidal buffering and lime injections could significantly control the pyrite oxidation, they could not improve the long-term water quality. More recently, permeable reactive barriers (PRBs) filled with waste concrete aggregates have received considerable attention as an innovative, cost-effective technology for passive in situ clean up of groundwater contamination. However, long-term efficiency of these PRBs for treating acidic groundwater has not been established. This study analyses and evaluates the performance of a field PRB for treating the acidic water over 2.5 years. The pilot-scale alkaline PRB consisting of recycled concrete was installed in October 2006 at a farm of southeast New South Wales for treating ASS-impacted groundwater. Monitoring data of groundwater quality over a 30 month period were assessed to evaluate the long-term performance of the PRB. Higher pH value (∼pH 7) of the groundwater immediately downstream of the PRB and higher rates of iron (Fe) and aluminium (Al) removal efficiency (>95%) over this study period indicates that recycled concrete could successfully treat acidic groundwater. However, the overall pH neutralising capacity of the materials within the barrier declined with time from an initial pH 10.2 to pH 7.3. The decline in the performance with time was possibly due to the armouring of the reactive material surface by the mineral precipitates in the form of iron and aluminium hydroxi...